Camels are highly suited for severe desert conditions and able to provide most of the natural products like urine, which has been used as alternative medicine to treat diverse infections and disorders. There is, however, a shortage and paucity of scientific reviews highlighting the antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral effects of camel urine. By better understanding its antimicrobial characteristics, our overarching aim is to provide an exhaustive overview of this valuable natural product by synthesizing and summarizing data on the efficacy of this biofluid and also describing the potential substances exhibiting antimicrobial properties. We searched three databases in order to point out relevant articles (Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar) until December 2022. Research articles of interest evaluating the antimicrobial effects of camel urine were selected. Overall, camel urine furnished promising antibacterial activities against gram-positive bacteria, namely Staphylococcus aureus (30 mm), Bacillus cereus (22 mm), Bacillus subtilis (25 mm) and Micrococcus luteus (21 mm), as well as gram-negative bacteria, especially Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloacae, and Salmonella spp., without forgetting its efficiency on Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well. The excretion also showed its potency against H1N1 virus, vesicular stomatitis virus and middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Similarly, the camel urine featured strong antifungal activity against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and dermatophytes with a minimal inhibitory concentration of 0.625 μg/ml against Trichophyton violaceum, 2.5 μg/ml against Microsporum canis and 1.25 μg/ml against Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. This comprehensive review will be valuable for researchers interested in investigating the potential of camel urine in the development of novel broad-spectrum key molecules targeting a wide range of drug-resistant pathogenic microorganisms.

Aquatic environments under anthropogenic pressure serve as critical hotspots for the rapid development of microbial populations, including the growth of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). This study evaluates the efficiency of natural lagooning wastewater treatment systems at two sites in Settat and Ouled Said, Morocco, focusing on physicochemical characteristics and ARB prevalence in treated effluents. A substantial reduction in total bacterial counts, including coliforms, Enterococcus spp., and Pseudomonas spp., was observed following treatment, demonstrating overall system performance. However, a considerable proportion of resistant strains persisted, with coliforms demonstrating resistance rates of 27.5% to ampicillin and 45.98% to ciprofloxacin. A total of 535 bacterial isolates were detected, demonstrating the presence of human pathogenic species such as Escherichia coli , Klebsiella pneumoniae , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . These isolates revealed substantial resistance to numerous antibiotics, including ceftazidime and imipenem. Correlation analyses revealed significant associations between physicochemical parameters and antibiotic resistance patterns, with dissolved oxygen and pH showing strong negative correlations with resistant bacterial populations. Low dissolved oxygen levels and high organic load were associated with increased resistance rates. Factor analysis indicated four major components explaining 90.53% of the overall variance, underlining the pivotal importance of temperature, nitrate, and chemical oxygen demand for water quality and ARB dynamics. Spatial and seasonal variations further affected ARB prevalence, with higher resistance rates seen during colder months and in downstream regions. Effluents from wastewater treatment and urban runoff largely contribute to the emergence and spread of ARB. This study provides valuable insights into ARB dynamics in treated wastewater, underlining the necessity for advanced wastewater treatment strategies.

Background: Camel urine (CU) has been used in traditional medicine across North Africa and the Middle East to treat various diseases and infections. Bacteria-induced illnesses remain a critical threat to human health worldwide. Aim: In this context, the present study aimed to bridge ethnopharmacological knowledge with laboratory evidence by documenting traditional beliefs regarding CU and evaluating its in vitro antibacterial efficacy against both standard and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Methods: Semi-structured interviews with 450 informants to record their use of CU and perceptions of factors believed to enhance its medicinal effectiveness. The key variables of interest included storage, season, age, breed, physiological status, and camel dietary regimen. In parallel, 62 urine samples were collected based on these traditional criteria and tested in vitro against bacteria using the agar well diffusion method. Microscopical and biochemical parameters, along with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, were all performed to investigate factors influencing the antibacterial activity of CU. Results: CU is traditionally used against viral (52%), bacterial (30%), and fungal (8%) infections. Most participants favored urine from pregnant camels (86.11%), especially during the first trimester (40%), and from those grazing on desert plants in the wet season (99.44%), whereas breed (68.89%) and age (76.67%) were considered unimportant. In vitro tests confirmed broad-spectrum antibacterial activity in all 62 samples, with no significant seasonal effect (p = 0.218), but urine from early pregnancy showed stronger activity for both American type culture collection and MDR strains. Biochemical profiling of the most active samples revealed lower sodium and salinity, higher pH, and elevated levels of chloride, potassium, proteins, urea, and creatinine. Fourier-transform infrared analysis identified a unique 1388 cm⁻¹ peak in the most active samples, suggesting the presence of a distinctive bioactive compound. Conclusion: These results confirm traditional therapeutic practices and suggest the potential of CU for novel antimicrobial drug development. This study emphasized the integration of community-based medicinal wisdom with experimental validation to identify effective natural treatments against contemporary health threats.