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The electrode drying process is a crucial step in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries and can significantly affect the performance of an electrode once stacked in a cell. High drying rates may induce binder migration, which is largely governed by the temperature. Additionally, elevated drying rates will result in a heterogeneous distribution of the soluble and dispersed binder throughout the electrode, potentially accumulating at the surface. The optimized drying rate during the electrode manufacturing process will promote balanced homogeneous binder distribution throughout the electrode film; however, there is a need to develop more informative in situ metrologies to better understand the dynamics of the drying process. Here, ultrasound acoustic-based techniques were developed as an in situ tool to study the electrode drying process using NMC622-based cathodes and graphite-based anodes. The drying dynamic evolution for cathodes dried at 40 and 60 °C and anodes dried at 60 °C were investigated, with the attenuation of the reflective acoustic signals used to indicate the evolution of the physical properties of the electrode-coating film. The drying-induced acoustic signal shifts were discussed critically and correlated to the reported three-stage drying mechanism, offering a new mode for investigating the dynamic drying process. Ultrasound acoustic-based measurements have been successfully shown to be a novel in situ metrology to acquire dynamic drying profiles of lithium-ion battery electrodes. The findings would potentially fulfil the research gaps between acquiring dynamic data continuously for a drying mechanism study and the existing research metrology, as most of the published drying mechanism research studies are based on simulated drying processes. It shows great potential for further development and understanding of the drying process to achieve a more controllable electrode manufacturing process.
Ye Shui Zhang; Anand Narayanan Pallipurath Radhakrishnan; James B. Robinson; Rhodri E. Owen; Thomas G. Tranter; Emma Kendrick; Paul R. Shearing; Dan J. L. Brett. In Situ Ultrasound Acoustic Measurement of the Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Drying Process. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2021, 1 .
AMA StyleYe Shui Zhang, Anand Narayanan Pallipurath Radhakrishnan, James B. Robinson, Rhodri E. Owen, Thomas G. Tranter, Emma Kendrick, Paul R. Shearing, Dan J. L. Brett. In Situ Ultrasound Acoustic Measurement of the Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Drying Process. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2021; ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleYe Shui Zhang; Anand Narayanan Pallipurath Radhakrishnan; James B. Robinson; Rhodri E. Owen; Thomas G. Tranter; Emma Kendrick; Paul R. Shearing; Dan J. L. Brett. 2021. "In Situ Ultrasound Acoustic Measurement of the Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Drying Process." ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces , no. : 1.
Lithium-ion battery electrode design and manufacture is a multi-faceted process where the link between underlying physical processes and manufacturing outputs is not yet fully understood. This is in part due to the many parameters and variables involved and the lack of complete data sets under different processing conditions. The slurry coating step has significant implications for electrode design and advanced metrology offers opportunities to improve understanding and control at this stage. Here, metrology options for slurry coating are reviewed as well as opportunities for in-line integration, discussing the benefits of combining advanced metrology to provide comprehensive characterisation, improve understanding and feed into predictive design models. There is a comprehensive range of metrology which needs little improvement to provide the relevant quantifiable measures during coating, with one exception of particle sizing, where more precise, in-line measurement would be beneficial. However, there is a lack of studies that bring together the latest advancements in electrode coating metrology which is crucial to understanding the interdependency of myriad processing and product parameters. This review highlights the need for a comprehensive metrological picture whose value would be much greater than the sum of its parts for the next generation of multiphysics and data-driven models.
Carl D. Reynolds; Peter R. Slater; Sam D. Hare; Mark J.H. Simmons; Emma Kendrick. A review of metrology in lithium-ion electrode coating processes. Materials & Design 2021, 209, 109971 .
AMA StyleCarl D. Reynolds, Peter R. Slater, Sam D. Hare, Mark J.H. Simmons, Emma Kendrick. A review of metrology in lithium-ion electrode coating processes. Materials & Design. 2021; 209 ():109971.
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarl D. Reynolds; Peter R. Slater; Sam D. Hare; Mark J.H. Simmons; Emma Kendrick. 2021. "A review of metrology in lithium-ion electrode coating processes." Materials & Design 209, no. : 109971.
Increasing concerns regarding the sustainability of lithium sources, due to their limited availability and consequent expected price increase, have raised awareness of the importance of developing alternative energy-storage candidates that can sustain the ever-growing energy demand. Furthermore, limitations on the availability of the transition metals used in the manufacturing of cathode materials, together with questionable mining practices, are driving development towards more sustainable elements. Given the uniformly high abundance and cost-effectiveness of sodium, as well as its very suitable redox potential (close to that of lithium), sodium-ion battery technology offers tremendous potential to be a counterpart to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in different application scenarios, such as stationary energy storage and low-cost vehicles. This potential is reflected by the major investments that are being made by industry in a wide variety of markets and in diverse material combinations. Despite the associated advantages of being a drop-in replacement for LIBs, there are remarkable differences in the physicochemical properties between sodium and lithium that give rise to different behaviours, for example, different coordination preferences in compounds, desolvation energies, or solubility of the solid–electrolyte interphase inorganic salt components. This demands a more detailed study of the underlying physical and chemical processes occurring in sodium-ion batteries and allows great scope for groundbreaking advances in the field, from lab-scale to scale-up. This roadmap provides an extensive review by experts in academia and industry of the current state of the art in 2021 and the different research directions and strategies currently underway to improve the performance of sodium-ion batteries. The aim is to provide an opinion with respect to the current challenges and opportunities, from the fundamental properties to the practical applications of this technology.
Nuria Tapia-Ruiz; A Robert Armstrong; Hande Alptekin; Marco A Amores; Heather Au; Jerry Barker; Rebecca Boston; William R Brant; Jake M Brittain; Yue Chen; Manish Chhowalla; Yong-Seok Choi; Sara I R Costa; Maria Crespo Ribadeneyra; Serena A Cussen; Edmund J Cussen; William I F David; Aamod V Desai; Stewart A M Dickson; Emmanuel I Eweka; Juan D Forero-Saboya; Clare P Grey; John M Griffin; Peter Gross; Xiao Hua; John T S Irvine; Patrik Johansson; Martin O Jones; Martin Karlsmo; Emma Kendrick; Eunjeong Kim; Oleg V Kolosov; Zhuangnan Li; Stijn F L Mertens; Ronnie Mogensen; Laure Monconduit; Russell E Morris; Andrew J Naylor; Shahin Nikman; Christopher A O’Keefe; Darren M C Ould; R G Palgrave; Philippe Poizot; Alexandre Ponrouch; Stéven Renault; Emily M Reynolds; Ashish Rudola; Ruth Sayers; David O Scanlon; S Sen; Valerie R Seymour; Begoña Silván; Moulay Tahar Sougrati; Lorenzo Stievano; Grant S Stone; Chris I Thomas; Maria-Magdalena Titirici; Jincheng Tong; Thomas J Wood; Dominic S Wright; Reza Younesi. 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Physics: Energy 2021, 3, 031503 .
AMA StyleNuria Tapia-Ruiz, A Robert Armstrong, Hande Alptekin, Marco A Amores, Heather Au, Jerry Barker, Rebecca Boston, William R Brant, Jake M Brittain, Yue Chen, Manish Chhowalla, Yong-Seok Choi, Sara I R Costa, Maria Crespo Ribadeneyra, Serena A Cussen, Edmund J Cussen, William I F David, Aamod V Desai, Stewart A M Dickson, Emmanuel I Eweka, Juan D Forero-Saboya, Clare P Grey, John M Griffin, Peter Gross, Xiao Hua, John T S Irvine, Patrik Johansson, Martin O Jones, Martin Karlsmo, Emma Kendrick, Eunjeong Kim, Oleg V Kolosov, Zhuangnan Li, Stijn F L Mertens, Ronnie Mogensen, Laure Monconduit, Russell E Morris, Andrew J Naylor, Shahin Nikman, Christopher A O’Keefe, Darren M C Ould, R G Palgrave, Philippe Poizot, Alexandre Ponrouch, Stéven Renault, Emily M Reynolds, Ashish Rudola, Ruth Sayers, David O Scanlon, S Sen, Valerie R Seymour, Begoña Silván, Moulay Tahar Sougrati, Lorenzo Stievano, Grant S Stone, Chris I Thomas, Maria-Magdalena Titirici, Jincheng Tong, Thomas J Wood, Dominic S Wright, Reza Younesi. 2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Physics: Energy. 2021; 3 (3):031503.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNuria Tapia-Ruiz; A Robert Armstrong; Hande Alptekin; Marco A Amores; Heather Au; Jerry Barker; Rebecca Boston; William R Brant; Jake M Brittain; Yue Chen; Manish Chhowalla; Yong-Seok Choi; Sara I R Costa; Maria Crespo Ribadeneyra; Serena A Cussen; Edmund J Cussen; William I F David; Aamod V Desai; Stewart A M Dickson; Emmanuel I Eweka; Juan D Forero-Saboya; Clare P Grey; John M Griffin; Peter Gross; Xiao Hua; John T S Irvine; Patrik Johansson; Martin O Jones; Martin Karlsmo; Emma Kendrick; Eunjeong Kim; Oleg V Kolosov; Zhuangnan Li; Stijn F L Mertens; Ronnie Mogensen; Laure Monconduit; Russell E Morris; Andrew J Naylor; Shahin Nikman; Christopher A O’Keefe; Darren M C Ould; R G Palgrave; Philippe Poizot; Alexandre Ponrouch; Stéven Renault; Emily M Reynolds; Ashish Rudola; Ruth Sayers; David O Scanlon; S Sen; Valerie R Seymour; Begoña Silván; Moulay Tahar Sougrati; Lorenzo Stievano; Grant S Stone; Chris I Thomas; Maria-Magdalena Titirici; Jincheng Tong; Thomas J Wood; Dominic S Wright; Reza Younesi. 2021. "2021 roadmap for sodium-ion batteries." Journal of Physics: Energy 3, no. 3: 031503.
Summary Economically viable electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling is increasingly needed; however routes to profitability are still unclear. We present a comprehensive, holistic techno-economic model as a framework to directly compare recycling locations and processes, providing a key tool for recycling cost optimization in an international battery recycling economy. We show that recycling can be economically viable, with cost/profit ranging from (−21.43 - +21.91) $·kWh−1 but strongly depends on transport distances, wages, pack design and recycling method. Comparing commercial battery packs, the Tesla Model S emerges as the most profitable, having low disassembly costs and high revenues for its cobalt. In-country recycling is suggested, to lower emissions and transportation costs and secure the materials supply chain. Our model thus enables identification of strategies for recycling profitability.
Laura Lander; Tom Cleaver; Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar; Viet Nguyen-Tien; Robert J.R. Elliott; Oliver Heidrich; Emma Kendrick; Jacqueline Sophie Edge; Gregory Offer. Financial Viability of Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling. iScience 2021, 24, 102787 .
AMA StyleLaura Lander, Tom Cleaver, Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar, Viet Nguyen-Tien, Robert J.R. Elliott, Oliver Heidrich, Emma Kendrick, Jacqueline Sophie Edge, Gregory Offer. Financial Viability of Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling. iScience. 2021; 24 (7):102787.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaura Lander; Tom Cleaver; Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar; Viet Nguyen-Tien; Robert J.R. Elliott; Oliver Heidrich; Emma Kendrick; Jacqueline Sophie Edge; Gregory Offer. 2021. "Financial Viability of Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling." iScience 24, no. 7: 102787.
Electric vehicle battery electrodes are delaminated ultra-fast using high-powered ultrasound, separating active materials from the foil current collectors.
Chunhong Lei; Iain Aldous; Jennifer M. Hartley; Dana L. Thompson; Sean Scott; Rowan Hanson; Paul A. Anderson; Emma Kendrick; Rob Sommerville; Karl S. Ryder; Andrew P. Abbott. Lithium ion battery recycling using high-intensity ultrasonication. Green Chemistry 2021, 23, 4710 -4715.
AMA StyleChunhong Lei, Iain Aldous, Jennifer M. Hartley, Dana L. Thompson, Sean Scott, Rowan Hanson, Paul A. Anderson, Emma Kendrick, Rob Sommerville, Karl S. Ryder, Andrew P. Abbott. Lithium ion battery recycling using high-intensity ultrasonication. Green Chemistry. 2021; 23 (13):4710-4715.
Chicago/Turabian StyleChunhong Lei; Iain Aldous; Jennifer M. Hartley; Dana L. Thompson; Sean Scott; Rowan Hanson; Paul A. Anderson; Emma Kendrick; Rob Sommerville; Karl S. Ryder; Andrew P. Abbott. 2021. "Lithium ion battery recycling using high-intensity ultrasonication." Green Chemistry 23, no. 13: 4710-4715.
To investigate the influence of cell formats during a cell development programme, lithium-ion cells have been prepared in three different formats. Coin cells, single layer pouch cells, and stacked pouch cells gave a range of scales of almost three orders of magnitude. The cells used the same electrode coatings, electrolyte and separator. The performance of the different formats was compared in long term cycling tests and in measurements of resistance and discharge capacities at different rates. Some test results were common to all three formats. However, the stacked pouch cells had higher discharge capacities at higher rates. During cycling tests, there were indications of differences in the predominant degradation mechanism between the stacked cells and the other two cell formats. The stacked cells showed faster resistance increases, whereas the coin cells showed faster capacity loss. The difference in degradation mechanism can be linked to the different thermal and mechanical environments in the three cell formats. The correlation in the electrochemical performance between coin cells, single layer pouch cells, and stacked pouch cells shows that developments within a single cell format are likely to lead to improvements across all cell formats.
Grace Bridgewater; Matthew Capener; James Brandon; Michael Lain; Mark Copley; Emma Kendrick. A Comparison of Lithium-Ion Cell Performance across Three Different Cell Formats. Batteries 2021, 7, 38 .
AMA StyleGrace Bridgewater, Matthew Capener, James Brandon, Michael Lain, Mark Copley, Emma Kendrick. A Comparison of Lithium-Ion Cell Performance across Three Different Cell Formats. Batteries. 2021; 7 (2):38.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrace Bridgewater; Matthew Capener; James Brandon; Michael Lain; Mark Copley; Emma Kendrick. 2021. "A Comparison of Lithium-Ion Cell Performance across Three Different Cell Formats." Batteries 7, no. 2: 38.
This literature review covers the solubility and processability of fluoropolymer polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF). Fluoropolymers consist of a carbon backbone chain with multiple connected C–F bonds; they are typically nonreactive and nontoxic and have good thermal stability. Their processing, recycling and reuse are rapidly becoming more important to the circular economy as fluoropolymers find widespread application in diverse sectors including construction, automotive engineering and electronics. The partially fluorinated polymer PVDF is in strong demand in all of these areas; in addition to its desirable inertness, which is typical of most fluoropolymers, it also has a high dielectric constant and can be ferroelectric in some of its crystal phases. However, processing and reusing PVDF is a challenging task, and this is partly due to its limited solubility. This review begins with a discussion on the useful properties and applications of PVDF, followed by a discussion on the known solvents and diluents of PVDF and how it can be formed into membranes. Finally, we explore the limitations of PVDF’s chemical and thermal stability, with a discussion on conditions under which it can degrade. Our aim is to provide a condensed overview that will be of use to both chemists and engineers who need to work with PVDF.
Jean Marshall; Anna Zhenova; Samuel Roberts; Tabitha Petchey; Pengcheng Zhu; Claire Dancer; Con McElroy; Emma Kendrick; Vannessa Goodship. On the Solubility and Stability of Polyvinylidene Fluoride. Polymers 2021, 13, 1354 .
AMA StyleJean Marshall, Anna Zhenova, Samuel Roberts, Tabitha Petchey, Pengcheng Zhu, Claire Dancer, Con McElroy, Emma Kendrick, Vannessa Goodship. On the Solubility and Stability of Polyvinylidene Fluoride. Polymers. 2021; 13 (9):1354.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJean Marshall; Anna Zhenova; Samuel Roberts; Tabitha Petchey; Pengcheng Zhu; Claire Dancer; Con McElroy; Emma Kendrick; Vannessa Goodship. 2021. "On the Solubility and Stability of Polyvinylidene Fluoride." Polymers 13, no. 9: 1354.
Performance properties of lithium-ion battery electrodes; capacity, rate and lifetime, are determined by the design of the coating composite microstructure. The internal pore structure and electronic networks for high coat weight graphite electrodes are manipulated through changes in the ink rheological properties, and through an syringe dispensing printing process. The rheological properties of a water-based, high viscosity graphite ink were optimised using a secondary solvent for the rheological requirements of a syringe dispensing method. The microstructure of high coat-weight battery electrodes produced from printing and tape cast methods were compared and the electrochemical performance evaluated. Cross sectional analysis of the slurry cast coatings showed improved component homogeneity, lower graphite alignment with 0.1% to 10% weight increase of the secondary solvent, with a corresponding change in tortuosity of the electrodes of 5.3–2.8. Improved cycle life is observed with a printed electrode containing an embedded electrolyte channel. Performance properties were elucidated through charge discharge, GITT and PEIS measurements. Improved electronic conductivities, exchange currents and diffusion coefficients were observed for the syringe deposited electrode. This digital deposition process for manufacturing electrodes shows promise for further optimisation of electrodes for long-life, high energy density batteries.
Dominika Gastol; Matthew Capener; Carl Reynolds; Christopher Constable; Emma Kendrick. Microstructural design of printed graphite electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Materials & Design 2021, 205, 109720 .
AMA StyleDominika Gastol, Matthew Capener, Carl Reynolds, Christopher Constable, Emma Kendrick. Microstructural design of printed graphite electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Materials & Design. 2021; 205 ():109720.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDominika Gastol; Matthew Capener; Carl Reynolds; Christopher Constable; Emma Kendrick. 2021. "Microstructural design of printed graphite electrodes for lithium-ion batteries." Materials & Design 205, no. : 109720.
Sodium ion batteries offer a low-cost sustainable alternative to current lithium-ion batteries and can be made on the same manufacturing lines. The sustainability arises from the low cost, reduction in the use of critical elements and strategic materials, and potential long-life. To maximize their potential, higher energy density batteries are required, this can be achieved in part through the stabilization of higher voltage cathode materials. In this review we summarize the failure and degradation processes associated with the high capacity and higher voltage layered oxide cathode materials. Material crystal structure rearrangements, electrolyte oxidation, particle cracking and reactive surfaces form most of the degradation mechanisms. Strategies to overcome these processes are discussed in detail, and the synergistic requirements to stabilize the materials structure and the interfaces highlighted. The importance of surface engineering in future materials design is emphasised.
Tengfei Song; Emma Kendrick. Recent progress on strategies to improve the high-voltage stability of layered-oxide cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Physics: Materials 2021, 4, 032004 .
AMA StyleTengfei Song, Emma Kendrick. Recent progress on strategies to improve the high-voltage stability of layered-oxide cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Journal of Physics: Materials. 2021; 4 (3):032004.
Chicago/Turabian StyleTengfei Song; Emma Kendrick. 2021. "Recent progress on strategies to improve the high-voltage stability of layered-oxide cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries." Journal of Physics: Materials 4, no. 3: 032004.
Commercial lithium ion cells with different power: energy ratios were disassembled, to allow the electrochemical performance of their electrodes to be evaluated. Tests on coin cell half cells included rate tests (continuous and pulsed), resistance measurements, and extended pulse tests. Pulse power tests at high rates typically showed three limiting processes within a 10 s pulse; an instantaneous resistance increase, a solid state diffusion limited stage, and then electrolyte depletion/saturation. On anodes, the third process can also be lithium plating. Most of the cells were rated for a 10 C continuous discharge, and the cathode charging voltage at 10 C was around 4.2 V. For anodes, the maximum charge current to avoid a negative voltage was 3–5 C. Negative anode voltages do not necessarily mean that lithium plating has occurred. However, lithium deposits were observed on all the anodes after 5000 pulse sequences with 10 s pulses at ± 20 C.
Michael.J. Lain; Emma Kendrick. Understanding the limitations of lithium ion batteries at high rates. Journal of Power Sources 2021, 493, 229690 .
AMA StyleMichael.J. Lain, Emma Kendrick. Understanding the limitations of lithium ion batteries at high rates. Journal of Power Sources. 2021; 493 ():229690.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMichael.J. Lain; Emma Kendrick. 2021. "Understanding the limitations of lithium ion batteries at high rates." Journal of Power Sources 493, no. : 229690.
Lithium-ion batteries are the state-of-the-art power source for most consumer electronic devices. Current collectors are indispensable components bridging lithium-ion batteries and external circuits, greatly influencing the capacity, rate capability and long-term stability of lithium-ion batteries. Conventional current collectors, Al and Cu foils have been used since the first commercial lithium-ion battery, and over the past two decades, the thickness of these current collectors has decreased in order to increase the energy density. However to improve the performance further, alternative materials and structures, as well as specific treatments such as etching and carbon coating, have also been investigated to enhance the electrochemical stability and electrical conductivity of current collectors, for next-generation lithium-ion batteries with higher capacities and longer service lifetime. This work reviews six types of materials for current collectors, including Al, Cu, Ni, Ti, stainless steel and carbonaceous materials, and compares these materials from five aspects of electrochemical stability, electrical conductivity, mechanical property, density and sustainability. The effects of three different structures of foil, mesh and foam as well as two treatments of chemical etching and coating are also discussed. Future opportunities are highlighted at the end of this review.
Pengcheng Zhu; Dominika Gastol; Jean Marshall; Roberto Sommerville; Vannessa Goodship; Emma Kendrick. A review of current collectors for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources 2020, 485, 229321 .
AMA StylePengcheng Zhu, Dominika Gastol, Jean Marshall, Roberto Sommerville, Vannessa Goodship, Emma Kendrick. A review of current collectors for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources. 2020; 485 ():229321.
Chicago/Turabian StylePengcheng Zhu; Dominika Gastol; Jean Marshall; Roberto Sommerville; Vannessa Goodship; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "A review of current collectors for lithium-ion batteries." Journal of Power Sources 485, no. : 229321.
Claire Doswell; Joshua M Bray; Galina E Pavlovskaya; Lin Chen; Brij Kishore; Emma Kendrick; Magda Titirici; Melanie Britton. (A04 Best Poster Award Winner) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Sodium-Ion Batteries - The Quest for Quasimetallic Nanoparticles. ECS Meeting Abstracts 2020, MA2020-02, 704 -704.
AMA StyleClaire Doswell, Joshua M Bray, Galina E Pavlovskaya, Lin Chen, Brij Kishore, Emma Kendrick, Magda Titirici, Melanie Britton. (A04 Best Poster Award Winner) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Sodium-Ion Batteries - The Quest for Quasimetallic Nanoparticles. ECS Meeting Abstracts. 2020; MA2020-02 (4):704-704.
Chicago/Turabian StyleClaire Doswell; Joshua M Bray; Galina E Pavlovskaya; Lin Chen; Brij Kishore; Emma Kendrick; Magda Titirici; Melanie Britton. 2020. "(A04 Best Poster Award Winner) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Sodium-Ion Batteries - The Quest for Quasimetallic Nanoparticles." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2020-02, no. 4: 704-704.
The impacts on battery cell ageing from high current operation are investigated using commercial cells. This study utilised two tests–(i) to establish the maximum current limits before cell failure and (ii) applying this maximum current until cell failure. Testing was performed to determine how far cycling parameters could progress beyond the manufacturer’s recommendations. Current fluxes were increased up to 100 C cycling conditions without the cell undergoing catastrophic failure. Charge and discharge current capabilities were possible at magnitudes of 1.38 and 4.4 times, respectively, more than that specified by the manufacturer’s claims. The increased current was used for longer term cycling tests to 500 cycles and the resulting capacity loss and resistance increase was dominated by thermal fatigue of the electrodes. This work shows that there is a discrepancy between manufacturer-stated current limits and actual current limits of the cell, before the cell undergoes catastrophic failure. This presumably is based on manufacturer-defined performance and lifetime criteria, as well as prioritised safety factors. For certain applications, e.g., where high performance is needed, this gap may not be suitable; this paper shows how this gap could be narrowed for these applications using the testing described herein.
Justin Holloway; Faduma Maddar; Michael Lain; Melanie Loveridge; Mark Copley; Emma Kendrick; David Greenwood. Determining the Limits and Effects of High-Rate Cycling on Lithium Iron Phosphate Cylindrical Cells. Batteries 2020, 6, 57 .
AMA StyleJustin Holloway, Faduma Maddar, Michael Lain, Melanie Loveridge, Mark Copley, Emma Kendrick, David Greenwood. Determining the Limits and Effects of High-Rate Cycling on Lithium Iron Phosphate Cylindrical Cells. Batteries. 2020; 6 (4):57.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJustin Holloway; Faduma Maddar; Michael Lain; Melanie Loveridge; Mark Copley; Emma Kendrick; David Greenwood. 2020. "Determining the Limits and Effects of High-Rate Cycling on Lithium Iron Phosphate Cylindrical Cells." Batteries 6, no. 4: 57.
Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) are attracting considerable attention as post lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as they are a likely 'drop-in' technology which can be produced using existing manufacturing lines. One of the processes in manufacturing which is least understood is the formation and conditioning step; both battery technologies require a formation of the surface electrolyte interface (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interface (CEI) for long life cells. Here we discuss the formation, conditioning and electrolyte additives for the creation of the stable interfaces for high cycle life.In particular we highlight the similarities of the formation step in the manufacturing process for a NIB layered oxide-hard carbon chemistry and LIB NMC-graphite, and the subsequent differences in the SEI observed1. Methods for faster formation protocols for NIB and LIB where targeted voltage windows in active formation methods produce more stable interfaces are introduced2,3 and we show the effect upon the composition of the SEI layer using these different protocols.In all cases full cells were made with in a coin-cell figuration, these cells were subjected to different formation protocols and electrolytes additives such as FEC, VC and a new inorganic solid state additive. After formation the impedance of the cells were measured, and then cycled for 500 cycles at a higher rate to accelerate the ageing process. The resistance and the capacity of the cells were monitored during cycling. We show that even in a coin cell configuration significant differences in the cycle life are observed with different formation protocols and electrolyte additives. In addition we show the difference in the stability of the SEI in carbonate-based electrolytes between NIBs and LIBs. The effect upon the stability of the SEI and the performance of a NIB with a sodium metal oxide cathode and a hard carbon anode is discussed in detail and the role of the formation protocols and the inorganic additive. We also suggest the role of the additives for NIB and suggest the mechanism for which the stability is enhanced. Roberts, S. & Kendrick, E. The re-emergence of sodium ion batteries: testing, processing, and manufacturability. Nanotechnol. Sci. Appl. Volume 11, 23–33 (2018). Pathan, T. S., Rashid, M., Walker, M., Widanage, W. D. & Kendrick, E. Active formation of Li-ion batteries and its effect on cycle life. J. Phys. Energy 1, 044003 (2019). Kendrick, E. Optimisation Of Formation And Cell Ageing Protocols For Lithium Ion EV Batteries. Batter. Supercaps (2020). doi:10.1002/batt.202000048
Lin Chen; Brij Kishore; Claire Dancer; Emma Kendrick. Interfaces and Electrolyte Additives for Long-Life Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries. ECS Meeting Abstracts 2020, MA2020-02, 685 -685.
AMA StyleLin Chen, Brij Kishore, Claire Dancer, Emma Kendrick. Interfaces and Electrolyte Additives for Long-Life Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries. ECS Meeting Abstracts. 2020; MA2020-02 (4):685-685.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin Chen; Brij Kishore; Claire Dancer; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "Interfaces and Electrolyte Additives for Long-Life Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2020-02, no. 4: 685-685.
To develop better thermal-electrochemical models of lithium-ion batteries it is essential to obtain parameter sets that accurately describe the system. Parameters sets of commercial cells provide more utility to the research community as they are relevant in real-world applications that consequently require improved battery management systems. However, this proves challenging as the manufacturer reveals little information about the cell or its components. To characterise the electrodes, they must be extracted from the cell in a manner that does not impact behaviour. This has led to the requirement to develop better parameterization strategies. Through cell teardown and a suite of physical, electrochemical, and thermal analytical techniques it is possible to quantify battery behaviour.The efficacy of our parameterisation strategy has been demonstrated on the M50, a cell manufactured by LG Chem. Through careful teardown and electrochemical testing we were able to show minimal loss in performance. The subsequent post-mortem chemical analysis revealed the composition of this cell to be NMC811 and graphite-SiOx. Geometric parameters including particle size distribution, volume fractions, and tortuosity were evaluated using microscopy. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) enabled the determination of the kinetic and thermodynamic properties of each electrode. These properties are influenced significantly by temperature and state of lithiation, though these dependencies are often neglected in modelling due to the scope of most parameter sets available in literature.To provide new insights into how parameter values change throughout battery operation, their dependency on state of lithiation and temperature was mapped by evaluating their value at various lithium stoichiometries and the related activation energies. State of lithiation has a significant effect on the electrochemical parameters, while models can utilise functions to describe the entropic term, diffusion coefficients, and open circuit voltages, these parameters are still regarded as constant in many simulations as determining these functions requires dedicated experiments. The thermophysical properties of cell components, including current collectors, electrodes, and separator, vary with temperature, mapping these dependencies gives us a better understanding of how heat transport can change within a battery. Describing these relationships for a commercial cell gives modellers a parameter set that can be utilised to simulate cell behaviour with greater resolution than before.The electrochemical parameter set has been validated using both Doyle-Fuller-Newman (DFN) and single-particle-model with electrolyte (SPMe) model definitions. The validations datasets replicate various scenarios including standardised drive cycles, in each case demonstrating good approximation. The thermal parameters have been validated using a lumped thermal model and simulating the temperature of the cell. Coupling this behaviour with the electrochemical model to evaluate battery discharge at various temperatures.Relevant electrochemical parameters and their temperature dependencies have been uploaded into the open source software Python Battery Mathematical Modelling (PyBaMM) to provide access to the modelling community; a parameter set that has been determined directly for a commercial cell and validated in various scenarios. This is contrast to literature where parameter sets are often synthesised from various cells – neglecting the compositional and microstructural differences that have significant influence on the resulting electrochemical and thermal properties. This parameter set is becoming more robust over time as parameters are updated and expanded upon to capture new behaviours and cater to new model definitions. Additionally, the methodologies developed here act as a benchmark for accurate and reproducible battery characterisation, irrespective of chemistry or format.
Kieran O'regan; Emma Kendrick; Widanalage Dhammika Widanage; Ferran Brosa Planella; Chang-Hui Chen; Dominika Gastol. Parameterisation of a Coupled Thermal-Electrochemical Model for Lithium-Ion Batteries. ECS Meeting Abstracts 2020, MA2020-02, 66 -66.
AMA StyleKieran O'regan, Emma Kendrick, Widanalage Dhammika Widanage, Ferran Brosa Planella, Chang-Hui Chen, Dominika Gastol. Parameterisation of a Coupled Thermal-Electrochemical Model for Lithium-Ion Batteries. ECS Meeting Abstracts. 2020; MA2020-02 (1):66-66.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKieran O'regan; Emma Kendrick; Widanalage Dhammika Widanage; Ferran Brosa Planella; Chang-Hui Chen; Dominika Gastol. 2020. "Parameterisation of a Coupled Thermal-Electrochemical Model for Lithium-Ion Batteries." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2020-02, no. 1: 66-66.
With the widespread adoption of e-mobility, there are high numbers of lithium Ion batteries (LIB) entering the waste stream. It is imperative that disposal and recycling strategies are developed and implemented. There is an urgent need for safe, environmentally friendly and economically affordable disposal routes for End of Life (EoL) LIBs. This study has looked at 44 commercial recyclers and assessed their recycling and reclamation processes. A novel qualitative assessment matrix termed “Strategic materials Weighting And Value Evaluation" (SWAVE) is proposed and used to compare the strategic importance and value of various materials in EoL LIBs. The sustainability and quality of recycled material are assessed by comparing the final form or composition after the recycling processes, the industrial processes and the industry type (primary sector, manufacturer or recycler). SWAVE is applied to each company, producing a score out of 20, with a higher number indicating that more materials can be recycled. The separation processes and resources from six of the prominent recycling companies are discussed further. The majority of recyclers use one or more of mechanical treatment, pyrometallurgy, or hydrometallurgy, concentrating upon high value metal extraction rather than closed-loop recycling of the metals or component materials, highlighting an environmental and technological gap. To improve the current circular economy of batteries reuse and repurposing of materials (closed-loop recycling), instead of purely recycling or recovery of metals should be considered for further development. Further studies of environmental trade-offs from recycling or recovering one material in preference to another is required.
Roberto Sommerville; Pengcheng Zhu; Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar; Oliver Heidrich; Vannessa Goodship; Emma Kendrick. A qualitative assessment of lithium ion battery recycling processes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2020, 165, 105219 .
AMA StyleRoberto Sommerville, Pengcheng Zhu, Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar, Oliver Heidrich, Vannessa Goodship, Emma Kendrick. A qualitative assessment of lithium ion battery recycling processes. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2020; 165 ():105219.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoberto Sommerville; Pengcheng Zhu; Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar; Oliver Heidrich; Vannessa Goodship; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "A qualitative assessment of lithium ion battery recycling processes." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 165, no. : 105219.
Product design is an important factor which can control the efficiency and economics of a recycling flowsheet.
Dana L. Thompson; Jennifer M. Hartley; Simon M. Lambert; Muez Shiref; Gavin D. J. Harper; Emma Kendrick; Paul Anderson; Karl S. Ryder; Linda Gaines; Andrew P. Abbott. The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review. Green Chemistry 2020, 22, 7585 -7603.
AMA StyleDana L. Thompson, Jennifer M. Hartley, Simon M. Lambert, Muez Shiref, Gavin D. J. Harper, Emma Kendrick, Paul Anderson, Karl S. Ryder, Linda Gaines, Andrew P. Abbott. The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review. Green Chemistry. 2020; 22 (22):7585-7603.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDana L. Thompson; Jennifer M. Hartley; Simon M. Lambert; Muez Shiref; Gavin D. J. Harper; Emma Kendrick; Paul Anderson; Karl S. Ryder; Linda Gaines; Andrew P. Abbott. 2020. "The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review." Green Chemistry 22, no. 22: 7585-7603.
Optimised electrochemical formation protocols with targeted voltage windows increased the stability and resistance of the SEI, resulting in improved capacity retention while significantly reducing formation time for long-life Na-ion batteries.
Brij Kishore; Lin Chen; Claire E. J. Dancer; Emma Kendrick. Electrochemical formation protocols for maximising the life-time of a sodium ion battery. Chemical Communications 2020, 56, 12925 -12928.
AMA StyleBrij Kishore, Lin Chen, Claire E. J. Dancer, Emma Kendrick. Electrochemical formation protocols for maximising the life-time of a sodium ion battery. Chemical Communications. 2020; 56 (85):12925-12928.
Chicago/Turabian StyleBrij Kishore; Lin Chen; Claire E. J. Dancer; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "Electrochemical formation protocols for maximising the life-time of a sodium ion battery." Chemical Communications 56, no. 85: 12925-12928.
To enable fast charging of sodium ion batteries and eliminate metallic dendrite growth on the electrodes an improvement in electrode design is required. In this work, we show the benefit of a mixed composite electrode containing ionic and electronic conducting additives for a sodium‐ion battery negative electrode. Hard carbon electrodes with 5% additive containing different proportions of zeolite and carbon black are coated. The performance of the electrodes is elucidated through electrochemical and physical characterization methods; fast sodiation, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), galvanostatic intermittent titration techniques (GITT) and electron microscopy. The addition of zeolite improves the sodium‐ion transport diffusivity within the composite electrode by an order of magnitude at low voltages and high states of charge. EIS shows significantly lower series and surface electrolyte interface (SEI) resistances in the zeolite containing electrode after cycling. The capacity retention at higher rates is improved and a significant reduction of sodium dendrite growth was observed after cycling. SEM images confirm that porosity is still present in the zeolite containing electrode samples, enabling a pore network for sodium ion transport. These results emphasize the importance and limitations of ionic transport within hard carbon electrodes, and the required optimisation between electronic and ionic conductivity for sodium ion transport in these electrodes.
Daniela Ledwoch; James B. Robinson; Dominika Gastol; Katherine Smith; Paul R. Shearing; Daniel J. L. Brett; Emma Kendrick. Hard Carbon Composite Electrodes for Sodium‐Ion Batteries with Nano‐Zeolite and Carbon Black Additives. Batteries & Supercaps 2020, 4, 163 -172.
AMA StyleDaniela Ledwoch, James B. Robinson, Dominika Gastol, Katherine Smith, Paul R. Shearing, Daniel J. L. Brett, Emma Kendrick. Hard Carbon Composite Electrodes for Sodium‐Ion Batteries with Nano‐Zeolite and Carbon Black Additives. Batteries & Supercaps. 2020; 4 (1):163-172.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDaniela Ledwoch; James B. Robinson; Dominika Gastol; Katherine Smith; Paul R. Shearing; Daniel J. L. Brett; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "Hard Carbon Composite Electrodes for Sodium‐Ion Batteries with Nano‐Zeolite and Carbon Black Additives." Batteries & Supercaps 4, no. 1: 163-172.
Hard-carbon electrolyte interface stabilisation with a nano-zeolite ZSM-5 electrolyte additive. Unwanted degradation products are trapped within the zeolite cage preventing compositional changes at the interface, maximising the life-time of a sodium-ion battery.
Lin Chen; Brij Kishore; Marc Walker; Claire E. J. Dancer; Emma Kendrick. Nanozeolite ZSM-5 electrolyte additive for long life sodium-ion batteries. Chemical Communications 2020, 56, 1 .
AMA StyleLin Chen, Brij Kishore, Marc Walker, Claire E. J. Dancer, Emma Kendrick. Nanozeolite ZSM-5 electrolyte additive for long life sodium-ion batteries. Chemical Communications. 2020; 56 (78):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin Chen; Brij Kishore; Marc Walker; Claire E. J. Dancer; Emma Kendrick. 2020. "Nanozeolite ZSM-5 electrolyte additive for long life sodium-ion batteries." Chemical Communications 56, no. 78: 1.