Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have the potential to tackle major challenges associated with fossil fuel-sourced energy consumption. Nafion, a perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) membrane that has high proton conductivity and good chemical stability, is a standard proton exchange membrane (PEM) used in PEMFCs. However, PEM degradation is one of the significant issues in the long-term operation of PEMFCs. Membrane degradation can lead to a decrease in the performance and the lifespan of PEMFCs. The membrane can degrade through chemical, mechanical, and thermal pathways. This paper reviews the different causes of all three routes of PFSA degradation, underlying mechanisms, their effects, and mitigation strategies. A better understanding of different degradation pathways and mechanisms is valuable in producing robust fuel cell membranes. Hence, the progress in membrane fabrication for PEMFC application is also explored and summarized.

The market for electric vehicles and portable and wearable electronics is expanding rapidly. Lithium-ion batteries currently dominate the market, but concerns persist regarding cost and safety. Consequently, alternative battery chemistries are investigated, with zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) emerging as promising candidates due to their favorable characteristics, including safety, cost-effectiveness, theoretical volumetric capacity, energy density, and ease of manufacturing. Hydrogel electrolytes stand out as advantageous for ZIBs compared to aqueous electrolytes. This is attributed to their potential application in flexible batteries for wearables and their beneficial impact in suppressing water-induced side reactions, zinc dendrite formation, electrode dissolution, and the risk of water leakage. The novelty of this review lies in highlighting the advancements in the design and synthesis of biopolymer hydrogel electrolytes in ZIBs over the past six years. Notable biopolymers include cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, chitosan, alginate, gelatin, agar, and gum. Also, double-network and triple-network hydrogel electrolytes have been developed where biopolymers were combined with synthetic polymers, in particular, polyacrylamide. Research efforts have primarily focused on enhancing the mechanical properties and ionic conductivity of hydrogel electrolytes. Additionally, there is a concerted emphasis on improving the electrochemical performance of semi-solid-state ZIBs. Moreover, some studies have delved into self-healing and adhesive properties, anti-freezing characteristics, and the multifunctionality of hydrogels. This review paper concludes with perspectives on potential future research directions.