This study aimed to reveal the morphological characteristics of pure Holstein and Simmental skulls and to obtain reference values for morphometric analysis. Moreover, 54 skulls from 12- to 14-month-old male Holstein (n = 25) and Simmental (n = 29) cattle were collected from Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Region between 2023 and 2024. Linear measurements indicated that Holsteins had longer skulls compared to Simmentals. Holsteins exhibited significantly higher values for the greatest length of nasals and the shortest skull length. The facial breadth was wider in Holsteins and statistically distinctive between the breeds. Holsteins had a more oval orbital bony roof, while Simmentals exhibited a wider orbital structure. The orbital index was higher in Holsteins, distinguishing between the two breeds. It was observed that Simmental cattle had a wider occipital region. This difference is likely due to the larger lateral appearance of the Simmental skull, which has more body weight and provides a larger surface area for muscle attachment. These differences not only aid in breed identification but also offer insights into the functional adaptations of each breed. Future research should explore the genetic and environmental factors contributing to these morphological traits, further enriching our knowledge of cattle morphology and its implications for breeding and conservation efforts.

The patella plays a vital role in stifle joint function by contributing to limb extension and joint stabilization. While its clinical significance in small animal orthopedic surgery is well established, detailed comparative data on patellar morphology in domestic cats and dogs remain limited. This study aimed to investigate interspecific and intraspecific variation in patellar shape and size using three-dimensional geometric morphometric techniques. Computed tomography images of 18 cats and 55 dogs were used to construct 3D models, and a total of 14 anatomical landmarks were manually placed on each patella. Generalized Procrustes Analysis was applied, followed by principal component analysis to explore patterns of shape variation. The results revealed a significant difference in shape between cats and dogs, with dogs exhibiting broader variation and larger centroid sizes. Regression analysis indicated that 12.2% of the observed shape variation could be attributed to centroid size, reflecting the influence of patellar size. This strong link suggests that size has a significant influence on how the patella’s shape varies, especially in dogs. These findings highlight the importance of individual variation in patellar morphology, particularly in dogs. A single standardized implant or surgical technique may not be appropriate for all cases. Integrating shape and size evaluations into preoperative imaging can help improve implant fit, joint stability, and overall surgical success. In the absence of breed-specific data, individualized planning remains the most reliable approach.

Sexual dimorphism in bill morphology influences foraging strategies and bird competitive interactions. This study uses geometric morphometric analyses to examine sex-based differences in the bill shape and size of Ciconia ciconia, a large wading bird. Standardized dorsal and lateral photographs of 45 white storks (24 females and 21 males) were analyzed. The mean centroid size (CS) confirmed that males have significantly larger bills than females, yet principal component analysis revealed no reliable shape-based sex differentiation. Allometric analyses indicated that larger individuals exhibit more pronounced shape variations, likely tied to functional adaptations, though these were insufficient for sex determination. While bill size correlates with sex, shape variation does not serve as a reliable criterion for sexing C. ciconia. This study contributes to the understanding of sexual dimorphism in Ciconia ciconia by quantifying bill size differences using geometric morphometrics.

The astragalus acts as a crucial intermediary in the tarsal joint, facilitating the transfer of body weight to the lower extremities while also ensuring both stability and mobility through its articulation with adjacent bones, enabling efficient movement. This study investigates the morphological diversity of the astragalus in three modern cattle breeds, one goat breed, and three sheep breeds using three-dimensional geometric morphometric methods. A total of 225 specimens were analyzed in this study. Large bovids, such as the Holstein and Simmental cattle breeds, had a more developed lateral edge of the proximal trochlea and a more rounded astragalus. In small bovids, the Akkaraman and Morkaraman sheep breeds displayed a more prominent medial edge and a rounded astragalus form, while the Hair goat breed exhibited a rectangular structure with a well-developed lateral projection. The results of this study demonstrate that the astragalus serves as a reliable morphological marker for differentiating between large and small bovids, as well as between closely related taxa such as sheep and goats. These shape variations, particularly observed in the proximal trochlea, reflect functional adaptations to size, body mass, and locomotor demands, making the astragalus a critical element for taxonomic identification and biomechanical analysis.

This study aimed to investigate the skull morphometry and morphology of East Anatolian Red (EAR) and South Anatolian Red (SAR) cattle breeds using advanced 3D modelling techniques to establish comprehensive reference values. The study was based on 27 measurements and eight indices of the 42 skulls of male cattle collected from slaughterhouses in Türkiye. Craniometric measurements were analysed to identify potential morphological differences between the two breeds. Despite some observed differences in specific measurements, no statistically significant variations in skull morphometry between East Anatolian Red and South Anatolian Red cattle were found. SAR cattle exhibited a larger neurocranium than EAR. SAR cattle generally have a broader and more robust skull with a more pronounced nuchal crest and greater breadth of the foramen magnum. High variability within the EAR group suggested significant intra‐breed diversity, possibly due to genetic or environmental factors. The reference values established in this study serve as a crucial benchmark for monitoring morphological changes across generations and assessing the impact of selective breeding on skull structure. These findings contribute to the broader understanding of evolutionary developments and adaptations in cattle breeds, with significant implications for veterinary morphology, taxonomy, and breeding programs.

Common swifts are extreme aerial specialists that spend most of their lives in flight and use their legs mainly for clinging rather than locomotion. Because functional load is therefore expected to be concentrated on the wing, we hypothesized that the forelimb would exhibit stronger left–right differentiation than the hindlimb. In addition to testing this hypothesis, we used landmark-based geometric morphometric methods to describe humeral and femoral shape in common swifts and to test the effects of sex and body size on bone morphology. The humerus showed clear directional asymmetry: the effect of side explained 13.8% of total shape variance (F = 42.0, p = 0.001), indicating a consistent left–right shift across individuals. The femur also exhibited significant but weaker directional asymmetry, with side accounting for 5.4% of variance (F = 19.3, p = 0.001). In both bones, the individual term explained the largest proportion of variation, whereas residual variance (containing fluctuating asymmetry and measurement error) was moderate (≈27% in the humerus, ≈23% in the femur). Allometric regressions showed a weak but significant size–shape relationship for the humerus and only a marginal effect for the femur, and males and females showed almost complete overlap in the distribution of humeral and femoral shapes. Sex had no detectable effect on humeral or femoral shape or asymmetry, and body size explained only a modest proportion of shape variation in both elements. Overall, our results support the functional expectation: the more intensively used forelimb element is also the more directionally asymmetric one, whereas the femur of this largely aerial bird remains comparatively more symmetrical.