Communication infrastructure (CI) in microgrids (MGs) allows for the application of different control architectures for the secondary control (SC) layer. The use of new SC architectures involving CI is motivated by the need to increase MG resilience and handle the intermittent nature of distributed generation units. The structure of SC is classified into three main categories, including centralized SC (CSC) with a CI, distributed SC (DISC) generally with a low-data-rate CI, and decentralized SC (DESC) with communication-free infrastructure. To meet the MGs' operational constraints and optimize performance, control and communication must be utilized simultaneously in different control layers. In this survey, we review and classify all types of SC policies from CI-based methods to communication-free policies, including CSC, averaging-based DISC, consensus-based DISC methods, containment pinning consensus, event-triggered DISC, washout-filter-based DESC, and state-estimation-based DESC. Each structure is scrutinized from the viewpoint of the relevant literature. Challenges such as clock drifts, cyber-security threats, and the advantage of event-triggered approaches are presented. Fully decentralized approaches based on state-estimation and observation methods are also addressed. Although these approaches eliminate the need of any CI for the voltage and frequency restoration, during black start process or other functionalities related to the tertiary layer, a CI is required. Power hardware-in-the-loop experimental tests are carried out to compare the merits and applicability of different SC structures.

The absence of rotational masses from synchronous generators in converter-interfaced microgrids leads to a lack of inertia. Consequently, the system exhibits steeper frequency variations and higher frequency nadir, which may degrade the dynamic performance and challenge the operation of sensitive equipment such as protective relays in the grid. Virtual synchronous generator is introduced as an effective solution to increase the inertial response of converter interfaced renewable energy sources. This paper proposed a fuzzy controller, which is augmented on the virtual synchronous generator topology to damp the perturbation during transients by increasing the inertia of the system. The proposed fuzzy control adds a correction term to the the governor's output power that increases the system inertia during transients. In order to compare the inertial response improvement, a comparison between proposed fuzzy control technique and cost function based inertia and damping coefficient optimization is done on a virtual synchronous generator platform. It is shown that online measurement based adaptive methods have a better inertial response against other time-consuming techniques. To further verification, a number of experiments are done, which confirm the merits of the proposed fuzzy based virtual synchronous generator control method.

In this paper, a set of autonomous AC Microgrids interconnected by back-to-back converters is taken into account, where they are supplied fully using voltage source converter-based distributed energy resources. A comprehensive and generalized small-signal model of the interconnected autonomous microgrids as a large-scale system is proposed using the interconnection method. The modeling is based on detailed module models to show the impact of each module on the dynamic modes, especially the dominant critical modes. It is generalized and scalable due to separate modeling of modules as well as using unlimited and expandable interconnecting. The proposed interconnection method deals with all electrical and control connections between individual modules including feed-back, feed-forward, augmentation, and the order of module inputs and outputs. The model is validated employing Prony analysis method and using output results of an OPAL-RT real-time simulator. Using the proposed modeling method, the small-signal stability analysis and controller design can be realized simply for interconnected microgrids with any number of microgrids and different structures. Typically for two interconnected microgrids, all dynamic modes and participant state variables in different frequency ranges are identified using the eigenvalue analysis and participation matrix in MATLAB.

In this article, the stability of voltage source converter-based autonomous ac microgrids (MGs), which are interconnected through back-to-back converters (BTBCs), is analyzed. The small-signal stability analysis is based on a detailed, comprehensive and generalized small-signal modeling of the ac interconnected MGs (IMGs), which is possible for any number of MGs and interconnections. The large-signal stability of the IMGs is investigated for the case of the initial BTBC dc voltage as a part of paper contribution. A new margin/criterion is determined for the initial dc voltage in different situations of the BTBC operation. According to the proposed criterion, a fundamental difference between very weak MGs and conventional strong grids in the BTBC voltage stability is addressed. Using eigenvalue analysis and participation matrix, the main participating state variables and corresponding parameters in the dominant critical modes are recognized for an equilibrium point. Sensitivity analysis involves changing initial values of the state variables, parameters, and forcing functions to study their different values and find acceptable ranges of the parameters. Particularly, the considerable contribution of the BTBC in the critical modes is found out by analyzing the initial dc voltage, dc voltage controller and PLLs. In order to observe possible unstable situations and verify the transient studies, real-time simulations are provided for two and three MGs interconnected through BTBCs using OPAL-RT digital simulator. The IMGs can be robustly stable only by specifying the stabilizing ranges of the sensitive parameters to the critical modes and selecting their appropriate values.

As a solution for optimized, reliable and flexible operation of distribution systems, multiple AC microgrids can be interconnected. In this paper, a low-order low-frequency small-signal model is proposed for large-scale interconnected AC microgrids in order to analyze stability and dynamics as well as synthesize high-level controllers, e.g. grid-tie power controller. A sensitivity analysis-based technique is introduced for finding effective modules of fully inverter-based AC microgrids on the dominant low-frequency modes. The low-order model of AC microgrids including both droop-based and PQ-controlled distributed generation units is obtained by removing non-effective modules and reconfiguring the effective modules. The concept of virtual swing equation and the aggregation modeling method are employed to achieve a single-order model for each AC microgrid with any number of sources. The analysis and synthesis of the large-scale interconnected microgrids can easily be done using the proposed single-order model. The frequency analysis and control of three interconnected AC microgrids are presented as a case study, which leads to introducing the inter-microgrid oscillatory modes.