In this overview (introductory article to a special issue including 14 papers), we consider all main types of natural and artificial inland freshwater habitas (fwh). For each type, we identify the main biodiversity patterns and ecological features, human impacts on the system and environmental issues, and discuss ways to use this information to improve stewardship. Examples of selected key biodiversity/ecological features (habitat type): narrow endemics, sensitive (groundwater and GDEs); crenobionts, LIHRes (springs); unidirectional flow, nutrient spiraling (streams); naturally turbid, floodplains, large-bodied species (large rivers); depth-variation in benthic communities (lakes); endemism and diversity (ancient lakes); threatened, sensitive species (oxbow lakes, SWE); diverse, reduced littoral (reservoirs); cold-adapted species (Boreal and Arctic fwh); endemism, depauperate (Antarctic fwh); flood pulse, intermittent wetlands, biggest river basins (tropical fwh); variable hydrologic regime—periods of drying, flash floods (arid-climate fwh). Selected impacts: eutrophication and other pollution, hydrologic modifications, overexploitation, habitat destruction, invasive species, salinization. Climate change is a threat multiplier, and it is important to quantify resistance, resilience, and recovery to assess the strategic role of the different types of freshwater ecosystems and their value for biodiversity conservation. Effective conservation solutions are dependent on an understanding of connectivity between different freshwater ecosystems (including related terrestrial, coastal and marine systems).

Springs are unique aquatic habitats that contribute significantly to local and regional biodiversity because of their high habitat complexity and the large number of different spring types. Many springs are small, but they are numerous and often of high water quality, and thus, provide habitats for species that are rare elsewhere because of their sensitivity to anthropogenic impacts (least-impaired habitat relicts). Springs are often species-rich and contain a larger number of Red List taxa than other aquatic habitats. Hydrological factors, particularly flow permanence, water chemistry, and temperature are important ecological factors determining species distribution and community composition. Despite their importance for biodiversity and water quality, springs are much less studied than other aquatic ecosystems. They also are insufficiently covered by protective legislation, often resulting in the destruction of their natural habitat. The authors of papers in this special issue describe specific...