This study introduces the development of a novel bio-nano composite via the dispersion of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) in epoxy. The surface of cellulose nanofibers was functionalized using a two-step chemical treatment to enhance dispersion. The interfacial characteristics of CNF were improved using alcohol/acetone treatments. The modified CNF (M-CNF) demonstrated enhanced compatibility and improved dispersion in the epoxy matrix as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy. Based on the analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns, M-CNF did not disturb the crystalline phases at the interface. The results of mechanical testing showed that M-CNF worked as a reinforcing agent in the bio-nano composite. The flexural modulus increased from 1.4 to 3.7 GPa when M-CNF was introduced. A similar trend was observed for tensile strength and impact resistance. The optimum performance characteristics were observed at M-CNF of 0.6%. At higher dosages, some agglomeration was observed, which weakened the interfacial properties. This study promotes sustainability and resource conservation while offering CNF as a sustainable reinforcing agent to develop bio-nano composites.

Biobased wood adhesives are essential to reducing the dependence of wood-based panels on petrochemical and formaldehyde-emitting resins. This review critically synthesizes recent progress in lignin-, tannin-, starch-, furan/HMF-, organic acid-, and soy protein-based adhesive systems, with emphasis on chemical reactivity, curing mechanisms, water resistance, processability, and industrial relevance. The discussion distinguishes laboratory performance from industrial feasibility by considering specific press time, solids content, viscosity, raw material variability, emissions, cost, life-cycle performance, and compatibility with particleboard, medium-density fibreboard, plywood, and related engineered wood products. Lignin and tannins are highlighted as the most chemically compatible phenolic platforms, starch and soy systems as abundant but moisture-sensitive binders requiring targeted crosslinking, HMF and furan derivatives as promising aldehyde-type formaldehyde-free crosslinkers, and citric acid systems as attractive polyester-forming binders with pressing-temperature limitations. The review concludes that near-term adoption will most likely proceed through hybrid and partially biobased systems, whereas fully biobased adhesives require faster curing, standardized feedstocks, pilot-scale validation, and transparent techno-economic and life-cycle assessment.

Formaldehyde-free starch adhesives offer a renewable alternative to conventional binders used in medium-density fiberboard (MDF), but their application remains limited by poor moisture resistance and insufficient mechanical performance. The aim of this research work was to investigate and evaluate the combined effects of sorbitol and glycerol plasticizers, citric acid modification, and urea addition on the properties of starch-based adhesives and the resulting MDF panels. Five adhesive formulations were prepared and characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Laboratory MDF panels were manufactured and evaluated for thickness swelling (TS), water absorption (WA), internal bond strength (IB), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE). Among the tested formulations, the hybrid adhesive system, composed of sorbitol/starch/glycerol/urea/citric acid (SSGUC), provided the best overall performance. Panels bonded with SSGUC exhibited the lowest TS and WA after both 2 and 24 h of water immersion, with TS₂ values of 22.74 to 24.54% and WA₂ and WA₂₄ values of 91.16–101.43% and 132.11–141.29%, respectively. The same panels achieved IB, MOR, and MOE values of 0.59–0.86 MPa, 24.95–26.17 MPa, and 2413–2632 MPa, respectively. FTIR spectral changes were consistent with citric-acid-mediated esterification and modified hydrogen-bonding interactions in the urea-containing formulations, while DSC revealed formulation-dependent differences in thermal behavior. The FTIR interpretation was based primarily on comparative band development and intensity changes rather than on marginal peak-position shifts. Overall, the results indicate that combining sorbitol and glycerol with citric acid and urea can improve the moisture resistance and mechanical performance of starch-bonded MDF. Further optimization, including rheological characterization and comparison with commercial binders, is required to assess industrial applicability.

1. Two fundamental components of wood composite panels, such as particleboard and fiberboard, are wood chips or fibers and resin, which individually affect the properties of the panels (Khamedi et ...