An organism’s ability to function properly depends not solely on its diet but also on the intake of nutrients and non-nutritive bioactive compounds that exert immunomodulatory effects. This principle applies both to healthy individuals and, in particular, to those with concomitant chronic conditions, such as type 2 diabetes. However, the current food industry and the widespread use of highly processed foods often lead to nutritional deficiencies. Numerous studies have confirmed the occurrence of immune system dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes. This article elucidates the impact of specific nutrients on the immune system function, which maintains homeostasis of the organism, with a particular emphasis on type 2 diabetes. The role of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, and selected substances, such as omega-3 fatty acids, coenzyme Q10, and alpha-lipoic acid, was taken into consideration, which outlined the minimum range of tests that ought to be performed on patients in order to either directly or indirectly determine the severity of malnutrition in this group of patients.

Oral findings such as inflammation, ulcerations, or lesions can indicate serious systemic diseases and should prompt suspicion of acquired chronic conditions or inborn errors of immunity (IEIs). Currently, there are approximately 500 disease entities classified as IEIs, with the list expanding annually. The awareness of the existence of such conditions is of paramount importance, as patients with these disorders frequently necessitate the utilization of enhanced diagnostic techniques. This is exemplified by patients with impaired antibody production, in whom conventional serological methods may prove to be undiagnostic. Patients with IEI may require distinct therapeutic approaches or antimicrobial prophylaxis throughout their lives. An accurate diagnosis and, more importantly, early identification of patients with immune deficiencies is crucial to ensure the quality and longevity of their lives. It is important to note that the failure to establish a proper diagnosis or to provide adequate treatment could also have legal implications for medical professionals. The article presents IEIs, which may manifest in the oral cavity, and their diagnosis alongside therapeutic procedures.

The human gastrointestinal tract hosts a complex ecosystem known as the gut microbiota, which plays a crucial part in digestion and immune system function. Among the clinically recognized manifestations of dysbiosis in this system are Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO), Intestinal Methanogen Overgrowth (IMO), Small Intestinal Fungal Overgrowth (SIFO), and Large Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (LIBO). This study aims to investigate the complex pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these syndromes and their diagnostics and therapeutic options, focusing primarily on the roles of methane-producing archaea and fungal overgrowth. The methods employed in this study involve a comprehensive analysis and synthesis of peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, clinical trials, and meta-analyses. This review summarizes that methane production by Methanobrevibacter smithii was linked to altered fermentation, reduced microbial diversity, and slowed intestinal transit. Fungal species were associated with increased intestinal permeability, inflammation, and biofilm formation. Targeted interventions addressing microbial imbalances demonstrated potential therapeutic value. This review highlights the complex and multifactorial nature of gut dysbiosis, revealing its impact beyond the gastrointestinal tract. While emerging therapies targeting methanogens, fungi, and biofilms show promise, further research is essential to optimize their clinical application. The findings emphasize the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to refine diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

In order for the body to function properly, it needs not only food, but also nutrients and non-nutritive bioactive compounds that have an immunomodulating effect. This applies not only to healthy people, but especially to people with accompanying chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes. Unfortunately, the current food industry and the use of highly processed food promote nutritional deficiencies. Many studies confirm their occurrence in patients with type 2 diabetes. The article presents the influence of selected nutrients on the functioning of the immune system, which ensures homeostasis of the body, with particular emphasis on type 2 diabetes. The role of macroelements, microelements, vitamins and selected substances, such as omega-3 acids, coenzyme Q10 and alpha-lipoic acid. The minimum scope of tests that should be performed in patients to directly or indirectly determine the degree of malnutrition in this group of patients is presented.