The significant deployment of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) within a wide application field covering small consumer electronics, light and heavy means of transport, such as e-bikes, e-scooters, and electric vehicles (EVs), or energy storage stationary systems will inevitably lead to generating notable amounts of spent batteries in the coming years. Considering the environmental perspective, material resource sustainability, and terms of the circular economy, recycling represents a highly prospective strategy for LIB end-of-life (EOL) management. In contrast with traditional, large-scale, implemented recycling methods, such as pyrometallurgy or hydrometallurgy, direct recycling technology constitutes a promising solution for LIB EOL treatment with outstanding environmental benefits, including reduction of energy consumption and emission footprint, and weighty economic viability. This work comprehensively assesses the limitations and challenges of state-of-the-art, implemented direct recycling methods for spent LIB cathode and anode material treatment. The introduced approaches include solid-state sintering, electrochemical relithiation in organic and aqueous electrolytes, and ionothermal, solution, and eutectic relithiation methods. Since most direct recycling techniques are still being developed and implemented primarily on a laboratory scale, this review identifies and discusses potential areas for optimization to facilitate forthcoming large-scale industrial implementation.

Recycling lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become increasingly important in response to expanding electromobility. This paper is focused on evaluating the environmental impacts (EIs) of recycling pre-treatment of three types of LIBs with black mass as its product. A detailed gate-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment study was conducted to obtain EIs of the recycling process. The benefits of LIBs recycling pre-treatment and significant recovery of secondary aluminum for compared battery types are highlighted in the analysis. This paper points out that the varying chemistry of the compared LIBs does not affect the resulting EIs of the recycling pre-treatment procedures. Graphical abstract

Traditional PCB manufacturing has a significant environmental impact due to the chemicals used and toxic substances in the resulting waste. Most studies focus on input materials, failing to address the non‐ecological nature of the fabrication process itself. This paper presents a comprehensive report on the development of an approach that combines modifications to both the input materials and the process. The insulating substrate was produced by 3D printing from non‐flammable polymer waste based on PVC/PVAc. 3D printing technology enabled the encapsulation of components. Their connection was realized through screen‐ and stencil‐printed conductive paste, thereby eliminating the need for soldering. These component joints are comparable with those made using conventional electrically conductive adhesives. A fully functional, moderately complex, double‐sided demonstrator containing a radio‐frequency circuit was successfully produced. Life Cycle Assessment indicated that carbon emissions can be reduced by up to 61% compared to conventional FR4‐based PCBs. This benefit is accompanied by a trade‐off of approximately 16% higher impact in the resource use, minerals and metals category, mainly attributable to the silver‐based conductive paste. Further steps will focus on optimizing the process with emphasis on the potential shift to mass production.

Recycling lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has become increasingly important in response to expanding electromobility. This paper is focused on evaluating the environmental impacts (EIs) of recycling pre-treatment of three types of LIBs with black mass as its product. A detailed gate-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment study was conducted to obtain EIs of the recycling process. The benefits of LIBs recycling pre-treatment and significant recovery of secondary aluminum for compared battery types are highlighted in the analysis. This paper points out that the varying chemistry of the compared LIBs does not affect the resulting EIs of the recycling pre-treatment procedures.

This study provides a detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study of public transport vehicles, delivering a comprehensive evaluation of both fossil fuel-powered and alternative fuel options. The research underscores the significance of renewable energy sources, focusing on fuels such as biomethane and electricity derived from advanced future energy grids, wind power, and photovoltaic systems. By exploring these alternatives, the study aims to highlight their potential to reduce the environmental impacts associated with public transportation. The study also indicates that bioCNG (biomethane-derived compressed natural gas) could serve as a transitional energy source toward electric vehicles powered entirely by renewable energy. It evaluates each stage of a vehicle’s life cycle (excluding the end-of-life phase) from production to use, while considering the vehicle’s lifespan, ensuring a complete understanding of its environmental footprint. Graphical Abstract