This article is devoted to applying bioinformatics and immunoinformatics approaches for the development of a multi-epitope mRNA vaccine against the spike glycoproteins of circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants in selected African countries. The study’s relevance is dictated by the fact that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) began its global threat at the end of 2019 and since then has had a devastating impact on the whole world. Measures to reduce threats from the pandemic include social restrictions, restrictions on international travel, and vaccine development. In most cases, vaccine development depends on the spike glycoprotein, which serves as a medium for its entry into host cells. Although several variants of SARS-CoV-2 have emerged from mutations crossing continental boundaries, about 6000 delta variants have been reported along the coast of more than 20 countries in Africa, with South Africa accounting for the highest percentage. This also applies to the omicron variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in South Africa. The authors suggest that bioinformatics and immunoinformatics approaches be used to develop a multi-epitope mRNA vaccine against the spike glycoproteins of circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants in selected African countries. Various immunoinformatics tools have been used to predict T- and B-lymphocyte epitopes. The epitopes were further subjected to multiple evaluations to select epitopes that could elicit a sustained immunological response. The candidate vaccine consisted of seven epitopes, a highly immunogenic adjuvant, an MHC I-targeting domain (MITD), a signal peptide, and linkers. The molecular weight (MW) was predicted to be 223.1 kDa, well above the acceptable threshold of 110 kDa on an excellent vaccine candidate. In addition, the results showed that the candidate vaccine was antigenic, non-allergenic, non-toxic, thermostable, and hydrophilic. The vaccine candidate has good population coverage, with the highest range in East Africa (80.44%) followed by South Africa (77.23%). West Africa and North Africa have 76.65% and 76.13%, respectively, while Central Africa (75.64%) has minimal coverage. Among seven epitopes, no mutations were observed in 100 randomly selected SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoproteins in the study area. Evaluation of the secondary structure of the vaccine constructs revealed a stabilized structure showing 36.44% alpha-helices, 20.45% drawn filaments, and 33.38% random helices. Molecular docking of the TLR4 vaccine showed that the simulated vaccine has a high binding affinity for TLR-4, reflecting its ability to stimulate the innate and adaptive immune response.

The discovery of a new SARS-CoV-2 virus strain in South Africa presents a major public health threat, therefore contributing to increased infections and transmission rates during the second wave of the global pandemic. This study lays the groundwork for the development of a novel subunit vaccine candidate from the circulating strains of South African SARS-CoV-2 and provides an understanding of the molecular epidemiological trend of the circulating strains. A total of 475 whole-genome nucleotide sequences from South Africa submitted between December 1, 2020 and February 15, 2021 available at the GISAID database were retrieved based on its size, coverage level and hosts. To obtain the distribution of the clades and lineages of South African SARS-CoV-2 circulating strains, the metadata of the sequence retrieved were subjected to an epidemiological analysis. There was a prediction of the cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), Helper T cells (HTL) and B-cell epitopes. Furthermore, there was allergenicity, antigenicity and toxicity predictions on the epitopes. The analysis of the physicochemical properties of the vaccine construct was performed; the secondary structure, tertiary structure and B-cell 3D conformational structure of the vaccine construct were predicted. Also, molecular binding simulations and dynamics simulations were adopted in the prediction of the vaccine construct's stability and binding affinity with TLRs. Result obtained from the metadata analysis indicated lineage B.1.351 to be in higher circulation among various circulating strains of SARS-CoV-2 in South Africa and GH has the highest number of circulating clades. The construct of the novel vaccine was antigenic, non-allergenic and non-toxic. The Instability index (II) score and aliphatic index were estimated as 41.74 and 78.72 respectively. The computed half-life in mammalian reticulocytes was 4.4 h in vitro, for yeast and in E. coli was >20 h and >10 h in vivo respectively. The grand average of hydropathicity (GRAVY) score is estimated to be −0.129, signifying the hydrophilic nature of the protein. The molecular docking indicates that the vaccine construct has a high binding affinity towards the TLRs with TLR 3 having the highest binding energy (−1203.2 kcal/mol) and TLR 9 with the lowest (−1559.5 kcal/mol). These results show that the vaccine construct is promising and should be evaluated using animal model.

Background/Objectives: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an RNA virus recognized to be spread mainly by fecal-contaminated water. Its infection is known to be a serious threat to public health globally, mostly in developing countries, in which Africa is one of the regions sternly affected. An African-based vaccine is necessary to actively prevent HEV infection. Methods: This study developed an in silico epitope-based subunit vaccine, incorporating CTL, HTL, and BL epitopes with suitable linkers and adjuvants. Results: The in silico-designed vaccine construct proved immunogenic, non-allergenic, and non-toxic and displayed appropriate physicochemical properties with high solubility. The 3D structure was modeled and subjected to protein docking with Toll-like receptors 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 9, which showed a stable binding efficacy, and the dynamics simulation indicated steady interaction. Furthermore, the immune simulation predicted that the designed vaccine would instigate immune responses when administered to humans. Lastly, using a codon adaptation for the E. coli K12 bacterium produced optimum GC content and a high CAI value, which was followed by in silico integration into a pET28 b (+) cloning vector. Conclusions: Generally, these results propose that the design of an epitope-based subunit vaccine can function as an outstanding preventive vaccine candidate against HEV, although validation techniques via in vitro and in vivo approaches are required to justify this statement.

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The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread globally. Understanding the transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 contamination in the environment is essential for infection control policies. This study aims to provide a phylodynamic analysis and distribution pattern of SARS-CoV-2 from the environment in terms of Source, clades, lineages, and their location. Ninety (90) retrieved whole-genome sequences of environmental sources from GISAID were investigated to determine the evolutionary process of SARS-CoV-2 and mutation in the isolated nucleotide sequences. The analysis was carried out using R, MAFFT, and MEGA X software. Out of the five countries studied, Austria has the highest distribution with sixty-five samples (72.2%), and the highest isolates of 68 (75.6%) were from raw sewage. The highest clade in circulation as obtained from the study is G with lineages B. The phylogeny of SARS-CoV-2 whole-genome sequences from Austria, the United States, China, Brazil, and Liechtenstein indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 viruses were all clustered together, irrespective of sequence geographic location. The study concluded by demonstrating a clear interconnection between the phylogeny of SARS-CoV-2 isolates from various geographic locations, all of which were locked in the same cluster regardless of their environment specimen. Thus, depicting the possibility of their origination from a common ancestor. Highlight Environmental sources of specimen isolated from raw sewage have the highest occurring specimen sequence, while those from breathing air, door handle, and wastewater have the lowest sequence. Environmental surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 is of great importance to control the spread of the virus. Untreated raw sewage should be of more priority for the environmental surveillance of the virus. Eighteen (18) nucleotide sequences from this study’s multiple sequence alignment shared a 90% similarity with the Wuhan-Hu-1 reference genome, indicating a common evolutionary origin.