We present a historical overview of forest concepts and definitions, linking these changes with distinct perspectives and management objectives. Policies dealing with a broad range of forest issues are often based on definitions created for the purpose of assessing global forest stocks, which do not distinguish between natural and planted forests or reforests, and which have not proved useful in assessing national and global rates of forest regrowth and restoration. Implementing and monitoring forest and landscape restoration requires additional approaches to defining and assessing forests that reveal the qualities and trajectories of forest patches in a spatially and temporally dynamic landscape matrix. New technologies and participatory assessment of forest states and trajectories offer the potential to operationalize such definitions. Purpose-built and contextualized definitions are needed to support policies that successfully protect, sustain, and regrow forests at national and global scales. We provide a framework to illustrate how different management objectives drive the relative importance of different aspects of forest state, dynamics, and landscape context.

Smallholders play a major role in the expansion of oil palm as a global commodity crop. Yet outside of Southeast Asia, there is limited research on how it impacts smallholder livelihoods. This paper examines how different smallholder modes of production have emerged in the largest oil palm producing region of the Peruvian Amazon, Ucayali, and presents a typology of these arrangements. The socio-economic outcomes of these modes are analyzed using a survey of 200 smallholders and 14 months of participant observation. Results show that there is considerable variation in how smallholders produce oil palm, and in the outcomes associated with different production strategies. Independent production, corporate partnerships, and government assistance programs were viewed positively by smallholders. However, smallholders' knowledge about the workings of the market, the role of associations, and their own financial circumstances was poor. Different modes of production yield different outcomes in terms of debt burdens, dependency on powerful actors for information, and crop and livelihood diversity. These outcomes had implications for the economic sustainability of oil palm for smallholder livelihoods. Importantly, corporate partnerships have generated comparatively massive debt burdens for smallholders. On the other hand, under other production scenarios smallholders may hold significant power over decisions, and can benefit economically from oil palm, which has important implications for ethical oil-palm debates and decision making.

In Peru, as in many developing countries, charcoal is an important source of fuel. We examine the commercial charcoal commodity chain from its production in Ucayali, in the Peruvian Amazon, to its sale in the national market. Using a mixed-methods approach, we look at the actors involved in the commodity chain and their relationships, including the distribution of benefits along the chain. We outline the obstacles and opportunities for a more equitable charcoal supply chain within a multi-level governance context. The results show that charcoal provides an important livelihood for most of the actors along the supply chain, including rural poor and women. We find that the decentralisation process in Peru has implications for the formalisation of charcoal supply chains, a traditionally informal, particularly related to multi-level institutional obstacles to equitable commerce. This results in inequity in the supply chain, which persecutes the poorest participants and supports the most powerful actors.

Tropical peatlands are critical for climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation globally, yet in many parts of the world, they are being destroyed for anthropogenic uses with catastrophic environmental effects. Despite Peru’s status as home to the second largest area of peatlands in Latin America, significant gaps persist in understanding both the geographical distribution and the socio-political landscapes that shape them, exposing these ecosystems to risk of irreversible damage. Focusing on the Imiria region in Ucayali, Peru, where newly discovered peatlands intersect with Indigenous communities, this study, through participatory methods and qualitative analyses, explores the complex socio-political dynamics posing risks to these ecosystems. Our findings highlight a range of threats: (a) the emergence of new actors and land uses, including Mennonite colonies, coca settlements, and illegal resource extractors; (b) challenges posed by the state, encompassing changing legislation, a limited understanding of Indigenous needs and power dynamics, alongside insufficient strategies for peatland science and protection; and (c) a southward shift of socio-political and ecological problems towards peatland areas. We discuss how these dynamics exacerbate degradation risks and undermine Indigenous sovereignty, hindering conservation efforts. The study suggests pathways for ethical peatland conservation and emphasizes the need for further research in Ucayali, Peru.