Through a variety of mechanisms, including increasing the amount of readily available mineral nutrients, regulating phytohormone levels, and biocontrol of phytopathogens, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) associated with the plant rhizosphere either directly or indirectly stimulates plant growth and development. The establishment, survival, and persistence of PGPR inoculants are widely acknowledged to be contingent upon these two parameters, in addition to the intricate network of interactions within the rhizosphere. In general, the soil is a moist environment with significant amounts of carbon that have been degraded and harbors a large population of soil microbes. The rhizo-microbiome is crucial to agriculture because a wide variety of root exudates and plant cell debris attract unique and distinct patterns of microbial colonization. The rhizo-microbiome plays a crucial role in the manufacture and regulation of extracellular molecules, including hormones, secondary metabolites, antibiotics, and various signaling chemicals. Additionally, the microbial composition within the rhizo-microbiome influences soil texture enhancement. Research has shown that PGPR can be used to treat plants or inoculate plants to promote plant development. PGPR alters the physiology of the entire plant, which enhances nutrient uptake and affects the effectiveness of root activity. The specific biochemical processes of plants involved in this phenomenon are often not well understood. Nevertheless, new studies have shed light on the mechanisms via which signaling by PGPR can induce various plant responses, both at the local and systemic levels. Insufficient information is available regarding the impact of the PGPR mechanism and molecules on metabolic pathways in root characteristics. Consequently, this review will concentrate on elucidating the PGPR mechanism and identifying the essential molecules that exert influence on root-microbe interactions.

Plants encounter various stresses in their natural environments and can effectively respond to only one stress at a time. Through a complex gene network, transcription factors (TFs) such as WRKY TFs regulate a diverse array of stress responses. The clarification of the structural characteristics of WRKY proteins, along with recent advancements in molecular dynamics simulations, has shed light on the formation, stability, and interactions of DNA–protein complexes. This has provided a novel viewpoint regarding the control of WRKY TFs. The investigation of superfamilies, encompassing their historical development, diversity, and evolutionary patterns, has become feasible due to the transcriptome approach’s capacity to provide extensive and comprehensive transcripts. The significance of WRKY TFs lies in their pivotal role within several signaling cascades and regulatory networks that influence plant defense responses. The present review summarizes the functional aspects of the high-volume sequence data of WRKY TFs from different species studied to date. Moreover, a comparative analysis approach was utilized to determine the functions of the identified WRKY TFs in response to both abiotic and biotic stresses, as revealed through numerous studies on different plant species. The results of this review will be pivotal in understanding evolutionary events and the significance of WRKY TFs in the context of climate change, incorporating new scientific evidence to propose an innovative viewpoint.

Climatic stresses impede plant growth and development, leading to significant reductions in crop yield and biomass production. These challenges are exacerbated by global population growth and increasing desertification, which threaten global food security. Although advanced agricultural technologies, including smart irrigation systems, optimized cropping calendars, and stress-tolerant cultivars, have been developed to mitigate these stressors, their large-scale adoption remains limited due to high costs, technical complexity, and infrastructural constraints. Therefore, sustainable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective strategies are urgently required to ensure adequate crop productivity for the growing global population. At this crucial juncture, there is a pressing need to transition toward sustainable agricultural practices that strengthen plant resilience through natural and biological mechanisms. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) represent a promising biological approach for enhancing crop productivity by improving nutrient availability and mitigating the adverse effects of climate-induced abiotic and biotic stresses. This review uniquely integrates the biochemical, physiological, and molecular mechanisms of PGPR in plant nutrition and stress mitigation while critically analyzing contradictory field results and highlighting newly characterized strains and sustainable tools for climate-resilient agriculture.