The basic leucine zipper (bZIP) is a widely found transcription factor family that plays regulatory roles in a variety of cellular processes including cell growth and development and various stress responses. However, the bZIP gene family has not been well studied at a genome-wide scale in Fusarium graminearum (Fg), a potent pathogen of cereal grains. In the present study, we conducted a genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression profiling of 22 F. graminearum bZIP (FgbZIP) genes at different developmental stages and under various abiotic stresses. All identified FgbZIPs were categorized into nine groups based on their sequence similarity and phylogenetic tree analysis. Furthermore, the gene structure analysis, conserved motif analysis, chromosomal localization, protein network studies, and synteny analysis were performed. The symmetry of the exon and intron varied with the phylogenetic groups. The post-translational modifications (PTMs) analysis also predicted several phosphorylation sites in FgbZIPs, indicating their functional diversity in cellular processes. The evolutionary study identified many orthogroups among eight species and also predicted several gene duplication events in F. graminearum. The protein modeling indicated the presence of a higher number of α-helices and random coils in their structures. The expression patterns of FgbZIP genes showed that 5 FgbZIP genes, including FgbZIP_1.1, FgbZIP_1.3, FgbZIP_2.6 FgbZIP_3.1 and FgbZIP_4.3, had high expression at different growth and conidiogenesis stages. Similarly, eight genes including FgbZIP_1.1, FgbZIP_1.6, FgbZIP_2.3, FgbZIP_2.4, FgbZIP_4.1, FgbZIP_4.2, FgbZIP_4.3 and FgbZIP_4.6 demonstrated their putative role in response to various abiotic stresses. In summary, these results provided basic information regarding FgbZIPs which are helpful for further functional analysis.

Mikania micrantha, one of the world’s most destructive invasive species, is known for causing significant ecological and economic harm. While extensive research has focused on its growth characteristics, secondary metabolites, and control measures, its chemical interactions with the environment—particularly the role of flavonoids in shaping soil microbial communities—remain underexplored. In this study, we identified and quantified ten flavonoids from M. micrantha root exudates using UPLC-MS, including Hispidulin, Isorhamnetin, and Mikanin. To examine their impact, crude flavonoid extracts were applied to soil in potted experiments, which demonstrated that these compounds significantly increased soil fungal diversity and boosted the relative abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Furthermore, KEGG pathway analysis revealed that flavonoid addition elevated the copy numbers of genes involved in nitrogen cycling and metabolic functions, enhancing nutrient availability and microbial activity. Additionally, crude flavonoid extracts promoted the relative abundance of beneficial soil bacteria, such as Achromobacter, as well as AMF, both of which contribute to nutrient acquisition, plant growth, and soil health. These findings indicate that M. micrantha’s flavonoids can alter soil microbial community composition, thereby creating a favorable environment that reinforces its competitive edge over native plants.

Protoplast-based transformation is a vital tool for genetic studies in fungi, yet no protoplast method existed for P. sclerotiorum-scaumcx01 before this study. Here, we optimized protoplast isolation, regeneration, and transformation efficiency. The highest protoplast yield (6.72 × 10⁶ cells/mL) was obtained from liquid mycelium after 12 h of enzymatic digestion at 28 °C using Lysing Enzymes, Yatalase, cellulase, and pectinase. Among osmotic stabilizers, 1 M MgSO₄ yielded the most viable protoplasts. Regeneration occurred via direct mycelial outgrowth and new protoplast formation, with a 1.02% regeneration rate. PEG-mediated transformation with a hygromycin resistance gene and GFP tagging resulted in stable GFP expression in fungal spores and mycelium over five generations. LC/MS-based metabolomic analysis revealed significant changes in glycerophospholipid metabolism, indicating lipid-related dynamics influenced by GFP tagging. Microscopy confirmed successful colonization of tomato roots by GFP-tagged scaumcx01, with GFP fluorescence observed in cortical tissues. Enzymatic (cellulase) seed pretreatment enhanced fungal colonization by modifying root surface properties, promoting plant–fungal interaction. This study establishes an efficient protoplast transformation system, reveals the metabolic impacts of genetic modifications, and demonstrates the potential of enzymatic seed treatment for enhancing plant–fungal interactions.

Many naturally occurring chemical metabolites with significant cytotoxic activities have been isolated from medicinal plants and have become the leading hotspot of anti-cancer research in recent years. Hyptis rhomboidea Mart. et Gal is used as a folk medicine in South China to treat or assist in the treatment of liver disease, ulcers, and edema. But its chemical constituents have not been fully investigated yet. This study aimed to assess the cytotoxicity of H. rhomboidea, which was chemically characterized by chromatography–mass spectrometry methods. The results showed that the 95% ethanol extract of H. rhomboidea has marked inhibitory effects on five human cancer cell lines (HL-60, A549, SMMC-7721, MDA-MB-231, and SW480), with IC₅₀ values ranging from 15.8 to 40.0 μg/mL. A total of 64 compounds were identified by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) and gas chromatograph–mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis of H. rhomboidea crude extract. Among them, kaempferol, quercetin, rosmarinic acid, squalene, and campesterol were found to be abundant and might be the major metabolites involved to its bioactivity. The cytotoxic characterization and metabolite profiling of H. rhomboidea displayed in this research provides scientific evidence to support its use as medicinal properties.

Endophytic fungus are widely distributed in medicinal plants and the Penicillium species that recovered from plant tissues directly provide an attractive resource of structurally and biologically diverse natural products. For the sake of clarity, in this review only Penicillium strains derived from medicinal plants are discussed, while isolate originating entirely from soil, rhizosphere or other environmental samples were not included. We discuss the part of medicinal plants (root, stem, leaf, seed, bark) isolated from endophytes or the reported biological activities of endophyte derived compounds during the decade 2010 ‐ 2024. Some of these strains have also shown to have plant growth promoting characteristics and to enhance the host plants survival under conditions of stress. In total, over 100 Penicillium endophytes have been described from the contents of this review with 210 bioactive compounds having reported an array of pharmacological and agrochemical uses including antimicrobial, antifungal, anticancer, neuroprotective, antifibrotic, antiparasitic and other biocontrol activities. We also report the 3enzymatic potential of these isolates. Moreover we provide a library of 181 compounds newly isolated from these fungi and that have not been previously associated with a bioactivity. This study reveals strong metabolic potential of medicinal plants endophytic Penicillium, exposing its increasing importance for drug development and sustainable agricultural uses. Keywords: Medicinal plant, Penicillium sp, bioactive compounds, biological activity

The filamentous fungus Penicillium sclerotiorum is significant in the ecological and industrial domains due to its vast supply of secondary metabolites that have a diverse array of biological functions. We have gathered the metabolic potential and biological activities associated with P. sclerotiorum metabolites of various structures, based on extensive research of the latest literature. The review incorporated literature spanning from 2000 to 2023, drawing from reputable databases including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, among others. Ranging from azaphilones, meroterpenoids, polyketides, and peptides group exhibits fascinating potential pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects, holding promise in pharmaceutical and industrial sectors. Additionally, P. sclerotiorum showcases biotechnological potential through the production of enzymes like β-xylosidases, ß-D-Glucosidase and xylanases, pivotal in various industrial processes. This review underscores the need for further exploration into its genetic foundations and cultivation conditions to optimize the yield of valuable compounds and enzymes, highlighting the unexplored potential of Penicillium sclerotiorum in diverse applications across industries.