A novel eco-friendly high throughput continuous hydrothermal flow system was used to synthesise phase pure ZnO and doped ZnO in order to explore their properties for tissue engineering applications. Cerium, zirconium, and copper were introduced as dopants during flow synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles, Zirconium doped ZnO were successfully synthesised, however secondary phases of CeO and CuO were detected in X-ray diffraction (XRD). The nanoparticles were characterised using X-ray diffraction, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Dynamic Light scattering Measurements, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and RAMAN spectroscopy was used to evaluate physical, chemical, and structural properties. The change in BET surface area was also significant, the surface area increased from 11.35 (ZnO_2) to 26.18 (ZrZnO_5). However. In case of CeZnO_5 and CuZnO_5 was not significant 13.68 (CeZnO_5) and 12.16 (CuZnO_5) respectively. Cell metabolic activity analysis using osteoblast-like cells (MG63) and human embryonic derived mesenchymal stem cells (hES-MP) demonstrated that doped ZnO nanoparticles supported higher cell metabolic activity compared to cells grown in standard media with no nanoparticles added, or pure zinc oxide nanoparticles. The ZrZnO_5 demonstrated the highest cell metabolic activity and non-cytotoxicity over the duration of 28 days as compared to un doped or Ce or Cu incorporated nanoparticles. The current data suggests that Zirconium doping positively enhances the properties of ZnO nanoparticles by increasing the surface area and cell proliferation. Therefore, are potential additives within biomaterials or for tissue engineering applications.

Dura mater healing is essential to prevent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks in neurosurgical procedures. Drawing inspiration from the hierarchical structure of native dura mater, we have designed a biomimetic electrospun trilayered scaffold (TLS) utilizing silk fiber to replicate both the structure and function of the original tissue. The electrospun trilayered scaffold comprises three distinct layers: a skull-facing layer constructed from silk fibroin combined with strontium-doped bioactive glass, a gradient inert polyurethane middle layer and a brain-facing layer consisting of polyurethane infused with oregano essential oil. For the first time, oregano essential oil is used in dural substitute to impart potential antibacterial properties. The physicochemical properties of TLS were systematically evaluated using Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) and thermogravimetric analysis. The nanoscale architecture was verified through SEM while micro-CT analysis provided additional insights into the fibrous surfaces of the trilayered scaffold. Surface wettability tests revealed that the wetting characteristics were comparable to those of the native dura mater, with the brain-facing layer exhibiting hydrophobic properties conducive to water-tight dural closure and the skull-facing layer presenting hydrophilic properties favorable for cell adhesion. After immersion in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 28 days, the TLS showed a degradation rate of 13%. Furthermore, the results show that TLS was porous (60%) and demonstrated improved swelling in PBS. The addition of OEO improved the antibacterial potential; the TLS exhibited 80% antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli after 48 hours. Furthermore, the fibroblast cell line was exploited to assess the biological properties of TLS. Cell culture results indicated that TLS promoted NIH3T3 proliferation in the 3D microenvironments and was non-toxic. Similarly, live/dead and migration assay results further confirmed the biocompatibility of TLS with increased cell viability and 99% wound closure after 24 hours. Overall, we were able to manufacture a trilayered scaffold that architecturally mimics the native structure of dura mater.

SF/HA/ZnO scaffolds with SA were fabricated via freeze gelation, exhibited good swelling, hydrophilicity, and controlled in vitro degradation and supported pre-osteoblast viability, indicating strong potential for bone regeneration.