The troposphere is a key component of the Earth’s climate system, modulating weather patterns and global temperatures through intricate interactions between water vapor, atmospheric pressure, and temperature. Nevertheless, the effective long-term monitoring of tropospheric variations continues to represent a significant challenge in the realm of climate science. While conventional methods such as radiosondes and satellite observations yield valuable data, they frequently face constraints related to temporal resolution, spatial coverage, or weather-dependent variations. In recent years, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) meteorology has emerged as a promising alternative, offering continuous, high-precision atmospheric measurements. The objective of this review is to assess the application of GNSS tropospheric components in climate monitoring. Specifically, the following objectives are pursued: (1) examine how GNSS-derived ZTD, ZWD, and IWV reflect climate variability and long-term trends; (2) compare GNSS-based climate measurements with reanalysis and satellite datasets; (3) discuss the challenges and limitations of using GNSS for climate studies; (4) highlight future developments, including multi-GNSS integration and AI-driven climate data analysis.

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) products, including satellite orbit and clock corrections, ionospheric and tropospheric delay models, and multi-frequency data, are fundamental to modern geodesy and numerous scientific and industrial applications. The exploitation of these products facilitates the achievement of precise positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) across a diverse range of fields, including transportation, geodesy, agriculture, and disaster management. Nevertheless, numerous challenges remain, including signal degradation due to multipath effects, atmospheric interference, and vulnerabilities to jamming and spoofing. Recent developments seek to address these limitations and enhance the utility of GNSS products. International collaboration, spearheaded by organizations such as the International GNSS Service (IGS), is crucial for standardizing and distributing GNSS products, facilitating global accessibility and addressing challenges such as climate monitoring and disaster resilience. This review emphasizes the indispensable role of GNSS products in advancing science and industry, highlights persistent challenges, and explores innovative solutions that promise to enhance their accuracy, resilience, and accessibility for addressing global needs.

Vertical displacements are traditionally measured with precise levelling, which is inherently time consuming. Rapid or even real-time height determination can be achieved by the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Nevertheless, the accuracy of real-time GNSS positioning is limited, and the deployment of a network of continuously operating GNSS receivers is not cost effective unless low-cost GNSS receivers are considered. In this study, we examined the use of geodetic-grade and low-cost GNSS receivers for static and real-time GNSS levelling, respectively. The results of static GNSS levelling were processed in four different software programs or services. The largest differences for ellipsoidal/normal heights reached 0.054 m/0.055 m, 0.046 m/0.047 m, and 0.058 m/0.058 m for points WRO1, BM_ROOF, and BM_CP, respectively. In addition, the values depended on the software used and the location of the point. However, the multistage experiment was designed to analyze various strategies for GNSS data processing and to define a method for detecting vertical displacement in a time series of receiver coordinates. The developed method combined time differentiation of coordinates estimated for a single GNSS receiver using the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique and Butterworth filtering. It demonstrated the capability of real-time detection of six out of eight displacements in the range between 20 and 55 mm at the three-sigma level. The study showed the potential of low-cost GNSS receivers for real-time displacement detection, thereby suggesting their applicability to structural health monitoring, positioning, or early warning systems.

The primary objective of the authors was to measure the deflection of a bridge span using two different methods and to draw conclusions from the analysis of the results. The Millennium Bridge in Wroclaw was selected as the test object. The bridge was surveyed using both classical geodetic techniques (tacheometry) and a static Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) survey. Due to the requirements of both surveying methods, it was necessary to establish a control consisting of five points. Three of these were located on the bridge and were used for displacement measurements, while the other two points were used for control. The article describes the field and office work, considering the measurement process and its analysis. Based on the results, the application of these techniques yielded different values, which influenced their final interpretation. The displacements in the Up, East, and North components are 0.013, 0.011, and 0.032 m by the GNSS technique and 0.002, 0.015, and 0.002 m by tacheometry for the P1, P2, and P3 points, respectively. Furthermore, in the case of the static GNSS measurement, the errors for each displacement did not indicate that any of them was significant according to the three-sigma rule, calculated in relation to the value of each component or point. However, the classical method showed that the displacement at point P2 is significant and is the only one that could have a real impact on the use of the bridge. The result also confirms that a combination of different geodetic technologies, both classical and GNSS, can be effectively used for monitoring cable-stayed bridges.

The objective of the study was to ascertain the purchasing power potential of the average gross salary in the real estate market. The study area involved the European Union (EU) member states from 2008 to 2022. The research was based on the following data: average earnings for a full-time job, housing market transaction prices, and housing rental prices in the country. The analysis demonstrated that the average European must save for nearly six years for the purchase of their own apartment. Over the period from 2015 to 2022, the purchasing power of the monthly wage decreased in 20 of the 26 countries included in the survey. A recent study has demonstrated that 31% of the EU’s residents maintain households in rented housing. The study revealed that in the capital cities of six of the twenty countries surveyed, rent constitutes more than half of the average salary. Warsaw, the most expensive capital city, requires more than 93% of the average salary to be spent on rent.

The purpose of this paper is analysing the correlation between the magnitude of the annual amplitude of seasonal changes in the coordinate components of GNSS reference stations and the height of the antenna mounting above the ground. For this purpose, the daily coordinate solutions of more than 500 GNSS reference stations that are part of the IGS (International GNSS Service) network were studied due to their distribution across the globe and long operating time, for some stations dating back to the 1990s. To minimize the impact of the tectonic plate movements authors adopted coordinates of reference stations inside each of the 21 tectonic plates. The coordinates in a topocentric reference frame were detrended in accordance with a linear model, with the objective of removing first-order trends. Subsequently, the seasonal yearly functions were calculated for each North, East and Up component. Finally, the amplitude of the seasonal factor for each station was determined. As a result of the analysis, the existence of annual amplitudes of coordinate changes was demonstrated for some of the stations, but no significant correlation between this phenomenon and the height of the GNSS antenna mounting was shown. In the case of the horizontal components, the majority of the station’s time series is characterized by the amplitude of seasonal function does not exceed 2.5–3 mm, and 5 mm for the vertical component.