Essential oils are lipophilic secondary metabolites produced in various parts of aromatic plants and stored in specialized secretory structures. They play a vital role in plant defense, offering protection against microorganisms and herbivores. These oils are known for a wide range of biological activities, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, analgesic, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects. Given the increasing interest in natural alternatives to synthetic drugs, this review explored the therapeutic relevance of Pinus-derived essential oils as promising candidates in modern phytotherapy. Species of the genus Pinus have been widely investigated for their phytochemical composition and biological potential, with a focus on their medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. This review aimed to assess the biological properties of Pinus species commonly used in traditional medicine. In this paper, thorough insight into the chemical composition, as well as into the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of essential oils obtained from the different parts of Pinus species, was given. Although recognized for their antimicrobial activity against a wide range of bacterial strains, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, the practical application of Pinus essential oils is often limited by their physicochemical instability and volatility. Therefore, this review highlighted the advances in formulation strategies, particularly encapsulation techniques, as the possible direction of future research concerning essential oils.

Background/Objectives: The emergence of antimicrobial resistance has urged researchers to explore new antimicrobial agents, such as essential oils (EOs). The aim of this study was to examine chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the EOs from the needles and green cones of four Pinus species (Pinus mugo Turra., P. nigra J.F., P. syilvestris L., and P. halepensis Miller) from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Methods: Chemical profiles of EOs were assessed by gas chromatography, while microdilution method was used to test their antimicrobial activity. A synergistic action of EOs and gentamicin was investigated by the checkerboard assay. Results: The chemical composition of the tested EOs showed a high percentage of α-pinene, (E)-caryophyllene, limonene, germacrene D, myrcene, and δ-3-carene. EO from green cones of P. sylvestris showed high efficiency against S. aureus and E. faecalis. The MIC of P. nigra cones’ EO was 100 μg/mL against E. coli. The EO of P. halepensis green cones demonstrated the strongest activity against E. faecalis. EOs of P. halepensis needles and green cones exhibited the highest activity against C. albicans. Further, synergistic interaction was detected in combination of the selected EOs/gentamicin toward S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. Conclusions: Among the tested EOs, oils of P. sylvestris cones and P. halepensis cones and needles showed the greatest antimicrobial activity. The same EOs and EO from P. nigra cones displayed synergistic potential in combination with gentamicin, supporting their utilization as antimicrobial agents alone or in combination with antibiotics, which is in line with their ethnopharmacological usage and circular bioeconomy principles.

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to investigate the traditionally claimed anti-inflammatory effect of essential oil (EO) derived from pine green cones per se and after encapsulation into liposomes, which is expected to enhance its bioactivity and stability. Methods: The chemical profiling of EO was conducted using GC/GC-MS. The physico-chemical characterization of the liposomal formulation (LEO) included encapsulation efficiency, FTIR spectroscopy, and AFM imaging. Additionally, parameters such as mean particle diameter, polydispersity index, zeta potential, pH, and electrical conductivity were evaluated and reassessed after 30 days and 1 year to determine formulation stability. The in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of the EO and LEO was examined using a carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model. Results: The Pinus halepensis EO contained 14 components, mainly, α-pinene, myrcene, and (E)-caryophyllene. Encapsulation efficiency was 97.35%. AFM analyses confirmed the nanoscale dimensions and spherical shape of liposomes, while FTIR indicated successful encapsulation through overlapping functional groups. The droplet size of blank liposomes (L) ranged from 197.4 to 217 nm, while adding the EO decreased the droplet size and electrical conductivity. The polydispersity index (PDI) remained below 0.2. The zeta potential of the liposomes was between −35.61 and −49.43 mV, while the pH value was in the range of 4.35 to 5.01. These results indicate satisfactory stability across repeated measurements. Administration of LEO significantly inhibited paw edema relative to the controls, with a percentage inhibition of approximately 69%, which does not significantly differ from the effect of hydrocortisone, which was used as a positive control. Conclusions: This is the first study to report liposomal encapsulation and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of an EO derived specifically from green cones of P. halepensis. Our findings demonstrate that EO-loaded liposomes exhibited favorable physico-chemical properties and notable anti-inflammatory activity, comparable to that of hydrocortisone. These results support their potential application in the development of effective topical anti-inflammatory formulations.

Phytopreparations, in addition to the pharmacological activity and positive effects on health, can lead to side effects, toxic effects, allergic reactions, as well as the interaction of conventional and herbal medicines. Despite this, there is a generally positive attitude that herbal medicines and herbal dietary supplements are safe and harmless to health and are most often used on its own initiative, without consultations with a pharmacist or a doctor. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire for measuring the general knowledge about phytopreparations. The study was designed as an observational, prospective cross-sectional study, intended for the valiation of the original epidemiological questionnaire to evaluate the knowledge about phytopreparations. The sample consisted of 218 respondents, who were visiting private pharmacies at the territory of Bijeljina, in February and March 2016. The final version of the questionnaire for the evaluation of knowledge about herbal preparations had good internal consistency (α= 0.849) and homogeneity when randomly splitting the questionnaire into two parts (α=0.731; 0.788). Exploratory factor analysis singled out two factors. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the questionnaire was a valid and reliable instrument for the evaluation of general knowledge about safety of use of phytopreparations. This is very important because the evaluation of knowledge could lead to undertaking measures for improving it, which would reduce the potential adverse reactions and interactions of herbal preparations with conventional drugs, and the application would become safe and optimal.