Dinoflagellates are important eukaryotic microorganisms that play critical roles as producers and grazers, and cause harmful algal blooms. The unusual nuclei of dinoflagellates “dinokaryon” have led researchers to investigate their enigmatic nuclear features. Their nuclei are unusual in terms of their permanently condensed nucleosome-less chromatin, immense genome, low protein to DNA ratio, guanine-cytosine rich methylated DNA, and unique mitosis process. Furthermore, dinoflagellates are the only known group of eukaryotes that apparently lack histone proteins. Over the course of evolution, dinoflagellates have recruited other proteins, e.g., histone-like proteins (HLPs), from bacteria and dinoflagellates/viral nucleoproteins (DVNPs) from viruses as histone substitutes. Expression diversity of these nucleoproteins has greatly influenced the chromatin structure and gene expression regulation in dinoflagellates. Histone replacement proteins (HLPs and DVNPs) are hypothesized to perform a few similar roles as histone proteins do in other eukaryotes, i.e., gene expression regulation and repairing DNA. However, their role in bulk packaging of DNA is not significant as low amounts of proteins are associated with the gigantic genome. This review intends to summarize the discoveries encompassing unique nuclear features of dinoflagellates, particularly focusing on histone and histone replacement proteins. In addition, a comprehensive view of the evolution of dinoflagellate nuclei is presented.

Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) infects only patients that are already infected by hepatitis B virus (HBV) because this is sub satellite virus which depends on and propagate only in the presence of HBV. HDV causes co-infection or super infection with sever complication as compared to only HBV infection. No study on molecular level on HDV is available from this region; therefore, the aim of this study was to found out the molecular epidemiology of HDV (as a co-infection with HBV) in different geographical regions of Pakistan. Total 228 HBsAg positive samples were received for the study from different geographical regions of the country. Only HBV DNA PCR positive samples were further utilized for the presence of HDV RNA. For this purpose, HDV RNA and HBV DNA was extracted and amplified using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), nested PCR and real-time PCR. Out of the total 228 HBsAg positive samples, HBV DNA was detected in total 190 (83.3%) samples belonged to different patients. Of these 190 patients, HDV RNA was observed in 53 (28%) patients. Of the 53 HDV positive cases, 37 (69.8%) were males and 16 (30.2%) were female patients. The percentage of dual infection was found higher significantly (p < 0.05) in male patients as compared to female patients. Total 41 (26.8%) patients were below 40 years and 13 (31.7%) were above 40 years of age. No significant difference was seen in patients with ages above or below 40 years. In the provinces of Sindh, Khyber Pakhtoonkhaw and Punjab the observed prevalence of HDV was 67%, 6% and 4% respectively. In conclusion, the HDV infection is not uncommon in Pakistan and its prevalence is higher significantly in the Province of Sindh (p < 0.01) and male six (p < 0.05).

The use of natural products isolated from mushrooms against infection, cancer diseases and other oxidative-stress-related diseases is one of the cornerstones of modern medicine. Therefore, we tried to establish a combination of medicinal mushrooms and nanotechnology possibly with the field of medicine for the development of antibacterial agents against these MDR strains. The aim of the research was to understand the molecular identification, characterization and antibacterial action of Calvatia gigantea and Mycena leaiana. The identification of fruiting body species via morpho-anatomical and molecular methods was necessary to analyze the genetic variability and phylogenetic relationships of mushrooms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Calvatia from Hunza, Pakistan, exhibited 98% resemblance to the previously discovered Langermannia gigantean (DQ112623) and L. gigantean (LN714562) from northern Europe, and Mycena (Pakistan) showed a 97% similarity to M. leaiana (MF686520) and M. leaiana (MW448623) from the USA. UV-vis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used for AgNPs’ characterization. The UV-vis absorption peak of 500–600 nm indicates the AgNPs’ presence. XRD results determined Calvatia gigantea AgNPs were nanocrystals and Mycena leaiana seems to be amorphous. In addition, SEM results showed the cubic morphology of C. gigantea with a diameter of 65 nm, and the FTIR spectra of fruiting body revealed the presence of functional groups—carboxyl, nitro, and hydroxyl—in AgNPs, which catalyzed the reduction of Ag+ to Ag0. Further antibacterial activity of mushrooms against MDR strains was determined via agar well diffusion assay, and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was estimated by qualitative experimentation using the broth dilution method. All experiments were conducted in triplicate. The results showed that the mushroom AgNPs, along with their synergy and nano-composites (with the exception of Ethyl-acetate), were shown to have zones of inhibition from 4 mm to 29 mm against multidrug-resistant pathogens such as Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae and Escherichia coli. The mushroom composites were active against most of the tested microorganisms whilst the lowest MIC value (10–40 mg/mL) was recorded against MDR strains. Hence, the present study suggested the possibility of employing compounds present in mushrooms for the development of new antibacterial agents, as well as efflux pump inhibitors.

“Iqbal Ahmad Alvi” and “Muhammad Ikram” were not included as authors in the original publication