This paper presents a systematic literature review that reflects the current state of research in the field of algorithms and models for map generalization, the existing solutions for automatic (tactile) map generation, as well as good practices for designing spatial databases for the purposes of automatic map development. A total number of over 500 primary studies were screened in order to identify the most relevant research on automatic (tactile) map generation from the last decade. The reviewed papers revealed many existing solutions in the field of automatic map production, as well as algorithms (e.g., Douglas–Peucker, Visvalingam–Whyatt) and models (e.g., GAEL, CartACom) for data generalization that might be used to transform traditional spatial data into the haptic form, suitable for blind and visually impaired people. However, it turns out that a comprehensive solution for automatic tactile map generation does not exist.

Accessibility to tactile maps is limited due to their expensive and time-consuming development. Acceleration of their production requires standardized design guidelines that consider symbol design and production methods. In this paper, based on a review of research and best practice, we summarize knowledge on how to design tactile maps properly and provide a selection of highly legible, recommended symbols for the compilation of tactile maps. We also examine generalization constraints and other design parameters that are necessary for the standardization of tactile mapping. Finally, we explore differences in tactile map design depending upon the selected production method. Over the years, many useful guidelines have been developed although they remain unknown to the wider audience. There is still a long way to go in creating a global standard for the design of tactile maps.

The necessity to divide the analysed area into basic elements, regardless of the administrative division (cells or pixels, also called primary fields), and use them to prepare thematic maps emerged as early as by the end of the 19th century. The automation of map development processes brought a new approach to the function of cells, which made them a carrier that facilitates information processing, and presenting the results of analyses in the form of studies that very often function only in spatial information systems or on the Internet. Cells are currently used to conduct a series of advanced spatial analyses in practically all areas of application. The aim of the presented research was to analyse the influence of the shape and size of cells on the terrain classification results for the purposes of developing military passability maps. The research used the automatic terrain classification method, based on calculating the index of passability, calculated for cells of square, triangular, and hexagonal shapes and of different sizes, ranging from 100 m to 10,000 m. Indices of passability were determined basing on parameters derived from land cover elements that exist in the area of each of the adopted cells. Because of the fact that passability maps are mainly developed for military purposes, the study used a standardised vector spatial database—VMap Level 2. The studies have demonstrated that, if the surface areas of cells are identical, their shapes do not have a significant influence on the resulting passability map. The authors have also determined the sizes of cells that should be adopted for developing passability maps on various levels of accuracy, and, as a consequence, for being used on various levels of command of military troops.

In this study, we detected which means of transportation is beneficial from a travel time perspective in specific districts of Warsaw, Poland. To achieve this goal, we proposed a framework to perform a spatial analysis to describe the as-is situation in the city (the state that the situation is in at the present time). The framework contains the following elements: attractiveness analysis, travel time and speed analysis, and potential accessibility analysis. The relationship between the averaged nominal travel speed and the number of residents was also investigated. We used data from a journey planner, as well as land use and population statistics, and employed descriptive analytics. The results are presented as maps of travel times, travel speed, and potential accessibility, as well as scatter plots of dependencies between travel speed and number of residents. Unfortunately, public transportation ranks behind car and bike transport in terms of travel time, speed, and potential accessibility. The largest positive influence on effectiveness of traveling by public transportation is the metro and railway system; also, bikes can perfectly complement the public transportation system. The obtained results can be used to indicate directions of changes in the transportation system of Warsaw.

The research presented in this paper proposes a method for the development of photorealistic, physical terrain models using full-color 3D printing, along with an efficiency assessment (i.e., cartographic correctness). The rapid development of 3D printing technology in recent years has caused a growth in the number of solutions allowing the automatic or semi-automatic generation of digital terrain representations that can be then 3D printed. Unfortunately, most of these solutions do not consider cartographic principles and their products cannot be referred to as 3D maps. The methodology proposed in this paper takes into account issues related to proper cartographic design, so that highly reliable models can be created. The main challenges identified during the research include choosing the optimal pixel size for Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generation, which is used for landform representation, and integrating raster and vector data. Printing accuracy assessment is of high importance and, thus, a method for its implementation has been proposed. In order to verify the usability of the proposed methodology, the natural heritage site of the Valley of Five Polish Ponds, in the Tatra Mountains, Poland, has been chosen as the case study area. The results suggest that the proposed methodology can be successfully used for the preparation of highly accurate 3D maps that can be used for natural heritage documentation, promotion and visualization, as well as for the purposes of spatial planning and education.

Visually impaired people use tactile maps that can be read by the sense of touch or, to a limited extent, with their eyes. This article concerns the methods of assessing tactile maps in terms of their information value. In the research, methods used to assess traditional maps have been adopted to assess tactile maps. Tactile elements of two maps - one developed with the use of traditional methods and the second developed with the use of 3D printing - have been compared. Structural measures of information as well as the information efficiency coefficient of each map have been determined to assess whether new cartographic symbols proposed on a multi-level 3D printed map can increase its information value.