Predictive numerical models in the study of ground-borne vibrations generated by railway systems have traditionally relied on the subsystem partition approach (segmented). In such a method, loads are individually applied, and the cumulative effect of the rolling stock is obtained through superposition. While this method serves to mitigate computational costs, it may not fully capture the complex interactions involved in ground-borne vibrations—especially in the frequency domain. Recent advancements in computation and software have enabled the development of more sophisticated vibrational contamination prediction models that encompass the entire dynamics of the system, from the rolling stock to the terrain, allowing continuous simulations with a defined time step. Furthermore, the incorporation of computational contact mechanics tools between various elements not only ensures accuracy in the time domain but also extends the analysis into the frequency domain. In this novel approach, the segmented models are shifted to continuous simulations where the nonlinear problem of a rigid–flexible multibody system is fully considered. The model can predict the impact of a high-speed rail (HSR) vehicle passing, capturing the key intricacies of ground-borne vibrations and their impact on the surrounding environment due to a deeper comprehension of the occurrences in the frequency domain.

Predictive numerical models in the study of ground-borne vibrations generated by railway sys-tems have traditionally relied on the segmented approach of subsystems. In this approach, loads are individually applied, and the cumulative effect of rolling stock is obtained through superposi-tion. While this method serves to mitigate computational costs, it may not fully capture the com-plex interactions involved in ground-borne vibrations. Recent advancements in computational and software tools have enabled the development of more sophisticated vibrational pollution models. These advanced models encompass the entire dynamic system, from the rolling stock to the terrain, allowing for continuous simulations with a defined time step. Furthermore, the incorporation of computational contact tools between various ele-ments not only ensures temporal accuracy but also extends the analysis to the frequency domain. This paper explores the evolution of predictive numerical models in the context of ground-borne vibrations generated by trains on ballasted tracks. It highlights the shift from segmented models to continuous simulations, demonstrating the progressive advancement towards more comprehen-sive and accurate representations of railway-induced and generated vibrations in the track sur-roundings as an additional way of evaluate sustainability of infrastructures. In particular, this development of a numerical model from its inception aimed to expand upon ex-isting emission - prediction models by enriching the data with frequency-domain information. This approach has been driven by the aspiration to bridge the gap between numerical predictions and measured signals, striving for a higher level of accuracy in our obtained results. This model can predict the impact of a high-speed rail (HSR) vehicle passing on its own track. It possesses sufficient information in both the time and frequency domains to precisely characterize vibrations. This initiative marks a pivotal advancement, enabling us to more effectively capture the intricacies of ground-borne vibrations and their impact on the surrounding environment due to a deeper comprehension of the occurrences in the frequency domain, there's a heightened ca-pability to accurately characterize vibrations.