In the shift toward sustainable energy production, offshore wind power has experienced notable expansion. Several projects to install floating offshore wind farms in European waters, ranging from a few to hundreds of turbines, are currently in the planning stage. The underwater operational sound generated by these floating turbines has the potential to affect marine ecosystems, although the extent of this impact remains underexplored. This study models the sound radiated by three planned floating wind farms in the Strait of Sicily (Italy), an area of significant interest for such developments. These wind farms vary in size (from 250 MW to 2800 MW) and environmental characteristics, including bathymetry and seabed substrates. Propagation losses were modeled in one-third-octave bands using JASCO Applied Sciences’ Marine Operations Noise Model, which is based on the parabolic equation method, combined with the BELLHOP beam-tracing model. Two sound speed profiles, corresponding to winter and summer, were applied to simulate seasonal variations in sound propagation. Additionally, sound from an offshore supply ship was incorporated with one of these wind farms to simulate maintenance operations. Results indicate that sound from operating wind farms could reach a broadband sound pressure level (L_p) of 100 dB re 1 µPa as far as 67 km from the wind farm. Nevertheless, this sound level is generally lower than the ambient sound in areas with intense shipping traffic. The findings are discussed in relation to local background sound levels and current guidelines and regulations. The implications for environmental management include the need for comprehensive monitoring and mitigation strategies to protect marine ecosystems from potential acoustic disturbances.

Marine seismic surveys are a major source of anthropogenic underwater noise, with low-frequency airgun signals capable of propagating over basin-scale distances. This study investigates the long-range propagation of airgun-array signals from the ULYSSE seismic survey conducted in the Aegean Sea and evaluates their potential effects on acoustically sensitive marine fauna at distances of approximately 650 km. Numerical simulations were performed using a combination of an airgun array source model and a range-dependent acoustic propagation model, previously validated against hydrophone recordings from the NEMO-SN1 cabled observatory in the Ionian Sea. To assess ecological relevance, a species-specific acoustic communication framework was developed for fin whales, Mediterranean monk seals, gilthead seabream, and the common cuttlefish. Results show that while received airgun levels at ~650 km are below behavioral disturbance thresholds, long-range propagation substantially reduces communication space through masking—by tens of kilometers for fin whales and to sub-kilometer scales for monk seals and gilthead seabream—while remaining below detection thresholds for cuttlefish. These findings demonstrate that biologically relevant acoustic masking can occur far beyond survey areas, underscoring the importance of accurate source characterization and long-range propagation modeling in environmental impact assessments of seismic surveys.

Sound maps are essential and practical tools for hindcasting and forecasting sound levels, supporting both environmental assessments and policymaking. The NAVISON (Navis Sonus) project, funded and managed by the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), developed comprehensive shipping sound maps for European seas covering the period from 2016 to 2050. These maps provide results for the 63 Hz and 125 Hz decidecade bands, key frequencies for assessing Good Environmental Status under the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Source levels, computed along Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracks using the novel PIANO source model, serve as inputs to a sound mapping tool based on the parabolic equation method, which accounts for environmental factors, such as sound speed profiles, sediment properties, and bathymetry. The NAVISON project delivered hindcast (2016–2023) and forecast (2030, 2040, 2050) sound maps and sound energy densities by vessel type, season, and region. The forecast modeling incorporates scenarios that combine mitigation measures for both greenhouse gas emissions and underwater radiated noise. Maintained and disseminated by EMSA, these outputs provide a comprehensive, long-term perspective on shipping noise trends, quantify vessel-type contributions, enable regional comparisons, and support the evaluation of mitigation strategies.

Sound maps are essential and practical tools for hindcasting and forecasting sound levels, supporting both environmental assessments and policymaking. The NAVISON (Navis Sonus) project, funded and managed by the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), developed comprehensive shipping sound maps for European seas covering the period from 2016 to 2050. These maps provide results for the 63 Hz and 125 Hz decidecade bands, key frequencies for assessing Good Environmental Status under the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive. Source levels, computed along Automatic Identification System (AIS) ship tracks using the novel PIANO source model, serve as inputs to a sound mapping tool based on the parabolic equation method, which accounts for environmental factors, such as sound speed profiles, sediment properties, and bathymetry. The NAVISON project delivered hindcast (2016–2023) and forecast (2030, 2040, 2050) sound maps and sound energy densities by vessel type, season, and region. The forecast modeling incorporates scenarios that combine mitigation measures for both greenhouse gas emissions and underwater radiated noise. Maintained and disseminated by EMSA, these outputs provide a comprehensive, long-term perspective on shipping noise trends, quantify vessel-type contributions, enable regional comparisons, and support the evaluation of mitigation strategies.