Clarifying the complex relationships among ecosystem services (ESs) and their driving mechanisms is essential for effective ecosystem management and enhancing human welfare. Nonetheless, the current research on these issues still remains limited; therefore, further theoretical exploration is required. This study aims to quantitatively illustrate the trade-off strength of ESs and investigate the spatiotemporal heterogeneity connections between these relationships and various anthropogenic and natural factors in Baiyangdian basin, China, integrating InVEST, RMSE, geographical detector and MGWR methods. From 2000 to 2020, the total water yield (WY) and nutrient export (NE) increased, while the total carbon storage (CS) and habitat quality (HQ) decreased slightly. The trade-offs of ESs showed spatiotemporal heterogeneity. The most serious trade-off occurred between regulating services (CS and NE) and supporting services (HQ) in 2000, which was mainly distributed in the densely forested and grassed western and northern regions of the basin. The trade-off intensities of half of the pairwise ESs in 2020 increased, with the strengthened areas mainly located in the southeast of the watershed where built-up lands are concentrated. Various factors dominated the trade-offs among ESs, with the interactive effects of multiple drivers being more significant than those of individual factors. Land use type, vegetation cover and precipitation have the most pronounced effect on the trade-offs among ESs. The findings of this study may suggest and advocate for spatial ecological strategies to enhance the integrated and holistic advancement of various ESs and also serve as a reference for regional ecosystem governance and the attainment of sustainable growth.

Clarifying the spatiotemporal trade-offs between the supply and demand of ecosystem services is critical for regional ecological security and sustainable development. This paper focused on the West Liao River Basin, a crucial ecological barrier in Inner Mongolia, and quantified the supply and demand of ecosystem services by utilizing the InVEST model. A coupled coordination model is established to evaluate the supply–demand trade-offs, while a decoupling index model is used to analyze the dynamic changes in coordination. The influencing factors on the supply–demand relationship are also explored by using a geographically and temporally weighted regression (GTWR) model. The results from 2005 to 2020 indicated a decrease in carbon storage and an increase in carbon emissions. Water yield, food, and meat supply increased, while their demand decreased. Soil retention supply and demand both increased. Basin-scale coordination improved from low to moderate levels, with significant gains in both coordination and matching degrees. Decoupling indices fluctuated, with the central region showing a significantly higher decoupling index. The GTWR model showed that the spatial and temporal impacts of eight driving factors, including land use, on CD differed significantly, with precipitation having the most significant impact. The research results provided a theoretical basis for the future development of regional ecological restoration and sustainable development policies.