Open-pit mining is an important form of coal mining in China, and its damage to the ecological environment is particularly obvious in alpine regions. The ecological restoration of alpine open-pit coal mines faces severe challenges, and its restoration effect will directly affect the ecological security of China. Meanwhile, comprehensive and system-oriented evaluation of ecological restoration effects is still insufficient in current research. In this study, we selected different quantities of assessment factors on the two scales of ecological project area and ecological impact area to evaluate the ecological restoration effect of an alpine open-pit coal mine. Then, we formed a multi-scale and multi-dimensional ecological restoration effect assessment model of the alpine open-pit coal mine and used this model to analyze the implementation effect of the ecological restoration project of the Baiyinhua No. 2 Open-pit Mine. The results show that the multi-scale and multi-dimensional ecological restoration effect assessment model of alpine open-pit coal mine proposed in this study can accurately characterize the restoration effect of open-pit coal mines in alpine regions and can also be used as a significant evaluation tool in the future ecological construction of mining areas. This study hopes the multi-scale and multi-dimensional ecological restoration effect assessment model of alpine open-pit coal mine can provide a comprehensive, systematic, and scientific evaluation method for the ecological restoration of alpine open-pit coal mines and provide a scientific basis for the ecological restoration and green development of relevant mining areas.

This study utilized annual precipitation data collected from 76 meteorological stations located on the Loess Plateau and its adjacent regions. It employed empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis, the Mann–Kendall trend test (M-K), and continuous wavelet transform (CWT) to investigate the spatial distribution patterns, temporal trends, and periodicity of annual precipitation from 1961 to 2016. The results showed the following: (1) The long-term averages of annual rainfall on the Loess Plateau exhibited a general decline from the southeast to the northwest, with certain areas demonstrating a trend of reduction radiating outward from the central region. This precipitation regime was fundamentally governed by the interplay between geographic coordinates and topo-graphical characteristics. Nevertheless, this spatial distribution pattern is expected to undergo changes in the future. (2) Annual precipitation in the southern and eastern parts decreased significantly, while the western part reported the greatest increase, and thus the spatial variability of precipitation will decrease in the future. (3) Annual precipitation on the Loess Plateau generally has a period of about 4 years. The wavelet coherence analysis reveals that El Niño events, occurring over a brief 4-year interval, correlate with diminished precipitation patterns across the eastern and southern sectors of the Loess Plateau, consequently attenuating the precipitation’s spatial variability throughout the entire geographical domain. Therefore, in the future, when El Niño occurs, it is necessary to prevent droughts in the eastern and southern regions of the Loess Plateau.

Clarifying the complex relationships among ecosystem services (ESs) and their driving mechanisms is essential for effective ecosystem management and enhancing human welfare. Nonetheless, the current research on these issues still remains limited; therefore, further theoretical exploration is required. This study aims to quantitatively illustrate the trade-off strength of ESs and investigate the spatiotemporal heterogeneity connections between these relationships and various anthropogenic and natural factors in Baiyangdian basin, China, integrating InVEST, RMSE, geographical detector and MGWR methods. From 2000 to 2020, the total water yield (WY) and nutrient export (NE) increased, while the total carbon storage (CS) and habitat quality (HQ) decreased slightly. The trade-offs of ESs showed spatiotemporal heterogeneity. The most serious trade-off occurred between regulating services (CS and NE) and supporting services (HQ) in 2000, which was mainly distributed in the densely forested and grassed western and northern regions of the basin. The trade-off intensities of half of the pairwise ESs in 2020 increased, with the strengthened areas mainly located in the southeast of the watershed where built-up lands are concentrated. Various factors dominated the trade-offs among ESs, with the interactive effects of multiple drivers being more significant than those of individual factors. Land use type, vegetation cover and precipitation have the most pronounced effect on the trade-offs among ESs. The findings of this study may suggest and advocate for spatial ecological strategies to enhance the integrated and holistic advancement of various ESs and also serve as a reference for regional ecosystem governance and the attainment of sustainable growth.