Forest ecosystems, as the primary component of terrestrial ecosystems, provide essential ecosystem services (ESs) critical for sustainable human development. However, changes in climate and vegetation can alter these forest ESs. Understanding the complex relationships between regional climate, vegetation, and ESs is key to ensuring the sustainable management of forest ESs. Therefore, this study, using Baishanzu National Park as a case example, analyzed the impacts of regional climate and vegetation dynamics (vegetation coverage, forest type, and forest structure) on forest ESs, specifically water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), net primary productivity (NPP), and habitat quality (HQ). The results indicate that from 2000 to 2020, the forest Composite Index of Ecosystem Services (CIES) in Baishanzu National Park increased. Climate and vegetation dynamics have significant effects on forest ESs. Specifically, changes in WY and SC are primarily influenced by climate change, while changes in NPP and HQ are mainly affected by changes in forest type and structure. Complex trade-offs and synergies exist among different ESs, and the driving mechanisms of climate and vegetation changes on ES variations are also complex, involving both direct and indirect effects, with significant spatial heterogeneity. This study provides important references for the sustainable management and appropriate restoration of regional forest ESs.

Soil nutrient and fertility assessments provide a direct measure for evaluating forest management effects. In this study, we examined soil nutrient content in Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plantations under four reconstruction patterns: pure plantation, introduced broadleaf, introduced needleleaf, and introduced mixed broadleaf-needleleaf. The soil fertility index (SFI) evaluation model was constructed based on partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM), revealing the influence of stand characteristics on SFI in early stand reconstruction. The results showed that, compared to pure plantations, total nutrient content increased in the introduced needleleaf pattern by 13.94% to 21.15% and available nutrient content by 18.21% to 26.91%. In contrast, both introduced broadleaf and mixed broadleaf-needleleaf exhibited a declining trend. Significant differences were observed among the reconstruction patterns (p < 0.05). In the SFI evaluation model, soil chemistry total nutrient (SCT) and soil chemistry available nutrient (SCA) made significant contributions. The weights of SCT and SCA in SFI were 0.52 and 0.48, respectively. The SFI of four patterns ranged from 0.43 to 0.58, indicating relatively low soil fertility. Compared to pure plantations, introduced trees did not enhance soil fertility in early stand reconstruction. The SFI of the introduced needleleaf was significantly higher than that of the other two reconstruction patterns (p < 0.05). Stand construction (including diameter at breast height, tree density, and tree biomass) explained 14.69% of SFI variation, with a contribution of 31.72% in the surface soil layer (0~20 cm). Tree biomass significantly influenced SFI variation, accounting for over 40% of the total stand factors. Retained tree biomass had a substantially greater effect than introduced tree biomass, contributing twice as much to SFI variation. PLS-PM could effectively reflect the soil nutrient status and accurately estimate the weight of soil fertility. In early stand reconstruction, retained tree biomass might be the major influence on soil fertility variation. We suggest determining reasonable thinning intensity to retain enough Chinese fir and promote the growth of introduced trees. This study introduces a novel approach to soil fertility assessment and provides theoretical support for formulating effective forest management strategies in the early reconstruction of Chinese fir plantations.

Soil microbial communities are important for nutrient cycling regulation in forest ecosystems. However, limited knowledge exists regarding the characteristics of these microbial communities in Masson pine (Pinus massoniana Lamb.) plantations of different stand ages. In this study, four planted Masson pine stands (8-year-old, 12-year-old, 22-year-old, and 38-year-old stands) and one natural broadleaved forest stand (as a control) with three replications, were selected in the Laoshan Forest Farm, Qiandao Lake Town, Zhejiang Province, China. Soil physicochemical properties were measured and their effects on soil microbial communities were studied. Amplicon-based high-throughput sequencing was employed to process raw sequence data for soil microbes. It is worth noting that significant differences (p < 0.05) in soil bacterial genera were observed among different stand age groups. Total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), total potassium (TK), available potassium (AK), soil organic carbon (SOC), and soil bulk density (BD) were identified as the primary factors influencing bacterial community distribution (p < 0.05). Available nitrogen (AN), SOC, TN, and TK showed significant correlations with soil fungal communities (p < 0.05). These findings underscore the crucial role of soil physicochemical properties in shaping soil microbial community composition in Masson pine plantations.