Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of visual impairment and morbidity worldwide, being the number one cause of blindness in people between 27 and 75 years old. It is estimated that ~191 million people will be diagnosed with this microvascular complication by 2030. Its pathogenesis is due to alterations in the retinal microvasculature as a result of a high concentration of glucose in the blood for a long time which generates numerous molecular changes like oxidative stress. Therefore, this narrative review aims to approach various biomarkers associated with the development of diabetic retinopathy. Focusing on the molecules showing promise as detection tools, among them we consider markers of oxidative stress (TAC, LPO, MDA, 4-HNE, SOD, GPx, and catalase), inflammation (IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-8, IL-10, IL-17A, TNF-α, and MMPs), apoptosis (NF-kB, cyt-c, and caspases), and recently those that have to do with epigenetic modifications, their measurement in different biological matrices obtained from the eye, including importance, obtaining process, handling, and storage of these matrices in order to have the ability to detect the disease in its early stages.

Purpose: To evaluate the impact of pharmaceutical education on medication adherence in patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Systemic Arterial Hypertension. Patients and Methods: This randomized clinical trial enrolled patients with a diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Systemic Arterial Hypertension treated in an internal medicine outpatient clinic of a teaching hospital. One hundred and three patients were randomly assigned to the study groups; 51 to the control group and 52 to the intervention group with a 6 months follow-up. Medication adherence was assessed using the Morisky 8-item medication adherence scale. To improve patient adherence to treatment, a wallet card was provided with an up-to-date list of prescribed medications along with recommendations for follow-up care. Results: One hundred and seventy-nine patients were screened for eligibility, of which 103 (57.5%) participated in the study. The intervention group showed a statistically significant decrease in capillary glucose levels, glycated hemoglobin, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and triglycerides compared to the control group. The frequencies on medication adherence levels at 3 and 6 months in the control group remained similar to baseline, while in the intervention group the frequency of high adherence increased significantly at 6 months (8.7% to 43.5%). Conclusion: A high percentage of patients are not achieving optimal control of their diabetes. Medication adherence rates were between 45– 50% in patients at the baseline of the study, but after receiving education and support from a pharmacist, the intervened group showed a significant increase in their adherence.

The aim of this study was to detect and analyze Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) through Intensive Pharmacovigilance (IPV) in hospitalized pediatric patients to improve drug safety. A prospective 6-month cross-sectional study was performed in the pediatric service of a regional hospital in Mexico in order to assess hospitalized children from 1 day to 18 years old. The inclusion criteria were: both genders, all hospitalization causes, and at least one prescribed medication (indistinct drug group). Notifications were performed through medical visits, phone calls, or spontaneous reports. ADR suspicions were assessed with severity scales: Naranjo algorithm, Schumock & Thornton and Hartwig and Siegel. From a total of 1083 hospital admissions, 19 ADRs were recorded. The average age of patients in years was 7.2 (±5.9). The causality assessment in this study showed that most of the ADRs were probable (68.4%) and 4 certain (8.2%); causality was mainly attributed to antibiotics (AB) and an antiepileptic drug. We found a relationship of AB with ADRs (p < 0.05) with an increased risk at the third day of prescription (p < 0.05). The average severity was level 2 and 21% were classified as “preventable”. Lastly, an increase in hospital stay associated with ADRs (p < 0.05) and with concomitant medications (p < 0.05), was also found. The most severe ADRs were hemolysis and toxic epidermal necrolysis. IPV was an effective tool for ADR prevention, detection, and treatment in hospitalized patients. The intensive monitoring approach in pharmacovigilance amplifies ADR detection and this translates into the improvement of drug safety in children.

Background: Medication Errors (MEs) are considered the most common type of error in pediatric critical care services. Moreover, the ME rate in pediatric patients is up to three times higher than the rate for adults. Nevertheless, information in pediatric population is still limited, particularly in emergency/critical care practice. The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze MEs in the pediatric critical care services during the prescription stage in a Mexican secondary-tertiary level public hospital. Methods: A cross-sectional study to detect MEs was performed in all pediatric critical care services [pediatric emergency care (PEC), pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and neonatal intermediate care unit (NIMCU)] of a public teaching hospital. A pharmacist identified MEs by direct observation as the error detection method and MEs were classified according to the updated classification for medication errors by the Ruíz-Jarabo 2000 working group. Thereafter, these were subclassified in clinically relevant MEs. Results: In 2347 prescriptions from 301 patients from all critical care services, a total of 1252 potential MEs (72%) were identified, and of these 379 were considered as clinically relevant due to their potential harm. The area with the highest number of MEs was PICU (n = 867). The ME rate was > 50% in all pediatric critical care services and PICU had the highest ME/patient index (13.1). The most frequent MEs were use of abbreviations (50.9%) and wrong speed rate of administration (11.4%), and only 11.7% of the total drugs were considered as ideal medication orders. Conclusion: Clinically relevant medication errors can range from mild skin reactions to severe conditions that place the patient’s life at risk. The role of pharmacists through the detection and timely intervention during the prescription and other stages of the medication use process can improve drug safety in pediatric critical care services.

Evaluate the type and severity of potential drug-drug interactions and identify risk factors involved, in pediatric patients admitted in a hospital setting. Transversal retrospective analytical study was carried out with hospitalized pediatric patients from a Hospital in the West of Mexico, second and third level. The patients included were ≤18 years old hospitalized in the children wards; those admitted at the emergency room, neonatal intermediate and intensive therapy units were not included. Medical prescriptions were reviewed taking into consideration anthropometric characteristics, diagnosis and number of drugs prescribed to identify potential drug-drug interactions using Micromedex 2.0 database. 88 patients were included, an average of 4.6 ± 2.8 of drugs were prescribed per patient. 37 subjects (42%) presented some degree of potential drug-drug interactions of which 25.5% were major and 27.7% moderate according to the software. Identified risk factors were: age ≥ 4 years (OR 1.917; 95% CI 1.081-3.399), BSA ≥ 0.8m2(OR 1.825; 95% CI 1.021-3.263), height ≥ 1 m (OR 2.556;95% CI 1.322 - 4.941), and number of prescribed medications ≥ 4 (OR 2.106;95% CI 1.248 - 3.556). Some of the interactions found were for the benefit of the patient, but others were considered undesirable because they altered the pharmacokinetics of some of the medications administered. Detecting in time the harmful interactions for a patient may favor the patient's safety.