The effects of wing–body interaction (WBI) on aerodynamic performance and vortex dynamics have been numerically investigated in the forward flight of cicadas. Flapping wing kinematics was reconstructed based on the output of a high-speed camera system. Following the reconstruction of cicada flight, three models, wing–body (WB), body-only (BD) and wings-only (WN), were then developed and evaluated using an immersed-boundary-method-based incompressible Navier–Stokes equations solver. Results have shown that due to WBIs, the WB model had a 18.7 % increase in total lift production compared with the lift generated in both the BD and WN models, and about 65 % of this enhancement was attributed to the body. This resulted from a dramatic improvement of body lift production from 2 % to 11.6 % of the total lift produced by the wing–body system. Further analysis of the associated near-field and far-field vortex structures has shown that this lift enhancement was attributed to the formation of two distinct vortices shed from the thorax and the posterior of the insect, respectively, and their interactions with the flapping wings. Simulations are also used to examine the new lift enhancement mechanism over a range of minimum wing–body distances, reduced frequencies and body inclination angles. This work provides a new physical insight into the understanding of the body-involved lift-enhancement mechanism in insect forward flight.

This study integrates high-speed photogrammetry, 3D surface reconstruction, and computational fluid dynamics to explore a dragonfly (Erythemis Simplicicollis) in free flight. Asymmetric wing kinematics and the associated aerodynamic characteristics of a turning dragonfly are analyzed in detail. Quantitative measurements of wing kinematics show that compared to the outer wings, the inner wings sweep more slowly with a higher angle of attack during the downstroke, whereas they flap faster with a lower angle of attack during the upstroke. The inner-outer asymmetries of wing deviations result in an oval wingtip trajectory for the inner wings and a figure-eight wingtip trajectory for the outer wings. Unsteady aerodynamics calculations indicate significantly asymmetrical force production between the inner and outer wings, especially for the forewings. Specifically, the magnitude of the drag force on the inner forewing is approximately 2.8 times greater than that on the outer forewing during the downstroke. In the upstroke, the outer forewing generates approximately 1.9 times greater peak thrust than the inner forewing. To keep the body aloft, the forewings contribute approximately 64% of the total lift, whereas the hindwings provide 36%. The effect of forewing-hindwing interaction on the aerodynamic performance is also examined. It is found that the hindwings can benefit from this interaction by decreasing power consumption by 13% without sacrificing force generation.

The wake topology and propulsive performance of low-aspect-ratio plates undergoing a pitching-rolling motion in a uniform stream were numerically investigated by an in-house immersed-boundary-method-based incompressible Navier-Stokes equation solver. A detailed analysis of the vortical structures indicated that the pitching-rolling plate produced double-loop vortices with alternating signs from its trailing edge every half period. These vortices then shed and further evolved into interconnected “double-C”-shaped vortex rings, which eventually formed a bifurcating wake pattern in the downstream. As the wake convected downstream, there was a slight deflection in the spanwise direction to the plate tip, and the contained vortex ring size gradually increased. In addition, the analysis of the propulsive performance indicated that the shedding process of the double-loop vortices led to two peaks in the lift and thrust force production per half cycle. The observation of the double peaks in the force production is in agreement with previous flapping wing studies. Simulations were also used to examine the variations in the wake structures and propulsive performance of the plates over a range of major parameters. The aforementioned vortex structures were found to be quite robust over a range of Strouhal numbers, Reynolds numbers, and plate aspect ratios.