Human milk lipids provide not only energy but also indispensable bioactive components such as essential fatty acids. To establish the recommended daily intake value and guidelines for infant formula, a reference library of fatty acid composition has been generated from 4 Asian countries (South Korea, China, Vietnam, and Pakistan). Regardless of country, palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:1), and linolenic acid (C18:2) were the 3 most abundant fatty acids in human milk and account for more than 75% of total fatty acids (total FA). However, there were several considerable differences between fatty acids, particularly n-3 and n-6 (omega-3 and omega-6) groups. Chinese mothers' milk had a high concentration of linoleic acid at 24.38 ± 10.02% of total FA, which may be due to maternal diet. Among the 4 countries, Pakistani mothers' milk contained a high amount of saturated fatty acid (56.83 ± 5.96% of total FA), and consequently, polyunsaturated fatty acids, including n-3 and n-6, were significantly lower than in other countries. It is noteworthy that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in Pakistani mothers' milk was 44.8 ± 33.3 mg/L, which is only 25 to 30% of the levels in the other 3 countries, suggesting the need for DHA supplementation for infants in Pakistan. Moreover, the ratio of n-6 to n-3 was also remarkably high in Pakistani mothers' milk (15.21 ± 4.96), being 1.4- to 1.7-fold higher than in other countries. The average DHA:ARA ratio in Asian human milk was 1.01 ± 0.79. Korean mothers' milk showed a high DHA:ARA ratio, with a value of 1.30 ± 0.98, but Pakistani mothers' milk had a significantly lower value (0.42 ± 0.12). The fatty acid compositions and anthropometric data of mother (body mass index, age) did not show any correlation. The obtained data might provide information about human milk compositions in the Asian region that could benefit from setting up recommended nutrient intake and infant formula for Asian babies.

Vitamins are the essential elements for human life and, particularly, for infant health. Human milk is the best source of nutrients for newborns, however, the information of vitamins in Asian maternal milk is still limited. In this study, we have collected 580 Asian maternal milk samples from Korea (n = 254), China (n = 137), Pakistan (n = 92), and Vietnam (n = 97). The vitamin concentrations, including vitamin B-groups (8 vitamins), fat-soluble vitamin (retinol, D, E, K) and lutein in the breast milk of were investigated. The concentration of thiamin (B₁), biotin (B₇), and folic acid (B₉) in mother’s milk of four countries were not considerably different, while riboflavin (B₂), pantothenic acid (B₅), and pyridoxine (B₆) level in Vietnam samples were significantly lower than those in other countries. In contrast, retinol (A) and tocopherol (E) were found to be higher levels in Vietnamese maternal milk. Korean and Chinese maternal milk had low concentrations of retinol that may cause vitamin A deficiency in children. However, Chinese mother’s milk was distinguished with a high concentration of lutein. Pakistani mother’s milk was observed as having a significant problem of folic acid (B₉) deficiency. Regardless of the country, vitamin B₁₂, K, and D did not seem to be provided sufficiently through maternal milk. The moderate positive correlations were found between vitamin concentrations in each country and the pooled sample. The data obtained in this study were able to provide vital information to assess the nutritional status of breast milk in Asian countries and contributed to the efforts of ensuring the best nutrition for Asian children.

Soybeans (Glycine max) are nutrient-dense legumes and a high-quality plant-based protein source containing all essential amino acids. With a protein content of 36–40%, soy surpasses many other plant-derived proteins in nutritional value. Its bioactive components, particularly peptides and isoflavones, contribute to reducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and the risk of chronic diseases. In undernourished regions such as Pakistan, where protein-energy malnutrition is prevalent among women and children, soy offers a sustainable and cost-effective nutritional intervention. This review synthesizes findings from biochemical analyses, nutritional profiling, and clinical trials evaluating the impact of soybean protein and its bioactive compounds on growth, metabolic health, immune function, and disease prevention. Emphasis was placed on studies relevant to food-insecure populations and technological innovations enhancing soy product bioavailability. Soy protein has been shown to have positive effects on hormonal regulation, cardiovascular health, cognitive function, and immune support. Technological approaches such as fortification and fermentation improve nutritional bioavailability and sensory acceptance. The integration of soy into local diets enhanced nutritional adequacy, promoted environmental sustainability, and aligned with Sustainable Development Goals. Soybeans represent a sustainable, nutrient-rich solution to combat protein-energy malnutrition in vulnerable communities. Their high-quality protein profile, therapeutic properties, and adaptability to local food systems make them an effective strategy for improving public health and supporting environmental resilience.

Introduction: Wheat production faces increasing threats from climate change, highlighting the need for resilient, nutrient-dense, and sustainable alternatives such as sorghum and soybeans.Objective: The objective of the current study was to develop high-protein, low-glycemic, sustainable sorghum-soy snacks. The novelty of this study lies in providing a healthy snack that is gluten-free, rich in protein, and has a low glycemic index.Methods: In this study, sorghum-soy chips were prepared using four formulations with varying proportions of soybean and sorghum flours (T0: 50:50, T1: 55:45, T2: 60:40, and T3: 65:35) and processed through baking and frying techniques. The nutritional composition, mineral profile, sensory characteristics, and glycemic index of the composite flour were evaluated to determine their functional and health-promoting potential. All the values obtained from different analyses of chips were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) analysis through the software Statistix 8.1.Results: The sorghum-soy chips developed in this study demonstrated significant nutritional enhancement with increasing soybean incorporation. Proximate analysis revealed a marked (p < 0.05) increase in protein content, particularly in T3 (65:35 soybeans: sorghum ratio), while mineral analysis indicated appreciable levels of calcium (196.70 mg/100 g), iron (13.61 mg/100 g in T3), and magnesium (250.96 mg/100 g) among fried treatments, highlighting the potential to address micronutrient deficiencies. Sensory evaluation showed that T₁ (55:45) achieved the highest scores for color, flavor, crispiness, aroma, and overall acceptability, suggesting strong consumer preference. Furthermore, baked chips displayed a lower glycemic index and reduced fat content compared to fried variants, making them more appropriate for health-conscious and diabetic individuals. In contrast, fried chips exhibited superior texture and shelf stability, emphasizing their appeal in terms of sensory quality.Conclusion: Sorghum-soy chips demonstrated potential as gluten-free, protein-rich, low-glycemic index snacks that promote dietary diversity and support efforts to combat malnutrition. This study provides insights into creating healthier snack options using climate-resilient crops while adhering to sustainable food system principles.