Retinal degenerations, such as age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa, present significant challenges due to genetic heterogeneity, limited therapeutic options, and the progressive loss of photoreceptors in advanced stages. These challenges are compounded by difficulties in precisely targeting residual retinal neurons and ensuring the sustained efficacy of interventions. Optogenetics offers a novel approach to vision restoration by inducing light sensitivity in residual retinal neurons through gene delivery of light-sensitive opsins. This review traces the evolution of opsins in optogenetic therapies, highlighting advancements from early research on channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) to engineered variants addressing key limitations. Red-shifted opsins, including ReaChR and ChrimsonR, reduced phototoxicity by enabling activation under longer wavelengths, while Chronos introduced superior temporal kinetics for dynamic visual tracking. Further innovations, such as Multi-Characteristic Opsin 1 (MCO1), optimized opsin performance under ambient light, bridging the gap to real-world applications. Key milestones include the first partial vision restoration in a human patient using ChrimsonR with light-amplifying goggles and ongoing clinical trials exploring the efficacy of opsin-based therapies for advanced retinal degeneration. While significant progress has been made, challenges remain in achieving sufficient light sensitivity for functional vision under normal ambient lighting conditions in a manner that is both effective and safe, eliminating the need for external light-enhancing devices. As research progresses, optogenetic therapies are positioned to redefine the management of retinal degenerative diseases, offering new hope for millions affected by vision loss.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic inflammatory disease characterized by joint inflammation, degradation of cartilage and bone, and potential systemic effects. This paper provides a comprehensive historical overview of RA treatment, tracing the evolution from ancient empirical methods to modern targeted therapies. Advancements in the understanding of RA’s immunopathology have led to the development of conventional, biological, and targeted disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, including tumor necrosis factor  inhibitors and Janus kinase inhibitors. These innovations have been pivotal in transforming RA management, allowing for more personalized and effective treatment strategies. The historical progression in RA treatment reflects a shift from symptomatic management to targeted interventions aimed at the underlying mechanisms of the disease. This shift has not only improved clinical outcomes but also enhanced the quality of life for those affected by RA, underscoring the importance of ongoing research and adaptation of therapeutic strategies.

We present basic differences in the musculoskeletal ultrasound examinations between adults and children. Examiners who deal with adults on a daily basis have shared concerns about examining children. Such concerns may arise from the different approach to child ultrasounds, but they also come from differences in anatomical characteristics according to developmental age. We discuss the presence of growth plates, as well as non-mineralized parts of the bones. We also refer to the pathologies most often found in ultrasounds in early developmental stages. In the PubMed database, the set of keywords: “msk ultrasound in children”, “pediatric msk sonoanatomy”, “coxitis fugax”, “pediatric Baker’s cyst”, “Baker’s cyst ultrasonography”, “bone septic necrosis in ultrasonography”, “ultrasonography in juvenile idiopathic arthritis”, and “ultrasonography in juvenile spondyloarthropathies”, was used to identify a total of 1657 results, from which 54 was selected to be included in the article. We discuss the problem of osteochondritis dissecans, Osgood-Schlatter disease, examples of ligament injuries (especially in relation to the knee and ankle joints), exfoliation of growth cartilages, osteochondroma, exudates and inflammations affecting joints, and Baker’s cysts. In this way, we have collected useful information about the most common diseases of the musculoskeletal system in children.

Background: Avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head is a major indication for total hip arthroplasty (THA), often associated with significant blood loss and high transfusion rates. Tranexamic acid (TXA) has been shown to reduce perioperative bleeding, but evidence in AVN-specific populations remains limited. Methods: This retrospective, single-center study analyzed 115 patients undergoing primary THA due to AVN between 2016 and 2023. Patients who received TXA were compared with those who did not. Baseline and perioperative data including hemoglobin (HGB), erythrocyte count (RBC), transfusion rates, and PRBC unit use were collected. Results: Baseline characteristics were comparable between groups. TXA significantly reduced transfusion incidence (7.9% vs. 36.5%, p < 0.0001) and total PRBC unit use (0.1 ± 0.3 vs. 0.8 ± 1.1, p < 0.0001). The mean HGB drop was smaller in the TXA group (2.1 ± 1.2 vs. 3.2 ± 2.0 g/dL, p = 0.001), as well as the RBC drop (0.8 ± 0.4 vs. 1.3 ± 1.4 million/μL, p = 0.02). Conclusions: TXA effectively reduces blood loss and transfusion needs in AVN-related THA, supporting its routine perioperative use in this patient population.

Background: Migraine is a common, disabling neurological disorder with substantial genetic and environmental contributions. Dietary exposures are widely discussed by patients and clinicians as potential triggers or modifiers of attack frequency and severity. We synthesized contemporary evidence on dietary patterns, specific nutrients, and elimination strategies relevant to migraine prevention and management. Methods: We performed a narrative review of PubMed and Google Scholar (inception–August 2025) using combinations of “migraine”, “diet”, “nutrition”, “ketogenic”, “Mediterranean”, “omega-3”, and “gluten”. We prioritized randomized/controlled studies, recent systematic reviews/meta-analyses, and representative observational studies; evidence quality and applicability were appraised descriptively. Results: Higher adherence to a Mediterranean-style diet is associated with lower migraine frequency and disability in observational cohorts. Very low-calorie ketogenic diets significantly reduced monthly migraine attack frequency compared with isocaloric non-ketogenic comparators in an adult randomized controlled trial of participants with overweight or obesity (≥50% responder rate: 74% vs. 6%). Additional supportive evidence from uncontrolled studies, including those involving medium-chain triglyceride supplementation, further corroborates these findings. Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA/DHA) show prophylactic benefit in randomized trials and network meta-analyses, with favorable tolerability. Gluten-free diets may improve headaches in celiac disease and may help selected non-celiac patients. Alcohol (especially red wine) and high, irregular caffeine intake are frequently reported triggers, while evidence for specific foods/additives remains inconsistent. Weight loss and regular physical activity may further reduce burden in people with obesity. Conclusions: Current evidence supports recommending Mediterranean-style eating, consideration of omega-3 supplementation, and selective trials of ketogenic or elimination approaches in appropriate patients, alongside weight management and lifestyle optimization. High-quality, longer-duration RCTs using standardized dietary protocols and adherence biomarkers are needed to define dose–response relationships and enable personalized nutrition in migraine.

Lung cancer is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the world. These statistics make lung cancer one of the most important targets for modern medicine. The identification of multiple risk factors, including tobacco smoking, has been fundamental in understanding the disease. Late-stage detection is a significant contributor to the high mortality rate of lung cancer. Nonetheless, the role of screening is still debatable. The selection of therapy is primarily based on distinguishing between small-cell and non-small cell lung cancer. Despite the major differences in treatment, in both types in specific situations the treatment involves durvalumab – a monoclonal antibody targeting the programmed cell death ligand 1 molecule, which is often present on tumor cells and protects them against the patient’s immune system. The efficacy of durvalumab has been demonstrated in two randomized, multicenter clinical trials. The aim of this study is to summarize the current state of knowledge about lung cancer and durvalumab. Despite the current 5-year survival rate of 19% in lung cancer, the development of immunotherapeutics such as durvalumab may be the key to improving the unfavorable prognosis of lung cancer in the future.