Background. Osteoporosis is the most common metabolic bone disease and represents a serious public health problem, particularly among postmenopausal women. It is characterized by reduced bone mineral density and bone microarchitecture disorders, leading to an increased risk of fractures, mortality, and socioeconomic burden. Estrogens play a key role in skeletal homeostasis by regulating osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. Advances in research have led to the development of effective pharmacological therapies targeting bone resorption and formation. In combination with supportive measures, these therapies form the basis of individualized strategies for fracture prevention and bone health maintenance in postmenopausal women. Aim. The aim of this study is to review the role of estrogen deficiency in the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoporosis and to evaluate current pharmacologic treatment options, with a particular focus on their mechanisms of action, effects on bone remodeling, and efficacy in reducing fracture risk. Material and methods. We conducted a review of the literature from 2015-2025 available in the PubMed database, using the keywords “postmenopausal osteoporosis” “postmenopausal osteoporosis treatment” and “osteoporosis hormones” Results. A range of effective pharmacologic therapies is available to reduce fracture risk. Antiresorptive agents such as bisphosphonates and denosumab are central to treatment, while hormone replacement therapy and selective estrogen receptor modulators may benefit selected patients. Osteoanabolic agents are particularly valuable for individuals at high fracture risk. Calcium and vitamin D provide supportive benefits when deficiency is present. Conclusions. Personalized, long-term therapeutic strategies such using osteoanabolic agents and antiresorptive agents as are critical to preserving bone health and optimizing treatment results in postmenopausal women.

Introduction and purpose: Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS) is a chronic painful disorder characterized by a burning or stinging sensation in the oral mucosa. It is a condition that affects a significant portion of the population, and its definition has recently been clarified. BMS can be divided into primary (idiopathic) or secondary forms, depending on the presence or absence of an identifiable cause. Brief description of the state of knowledge: Currently, it is estimated that BMS affects 1 in 1000 people, with women over the age of 60 being particularly susceptible. The exact causes of BMS are not well understood, but research suggests they may have a multifactorial nature, involving neuropathic, endocrinological, and psychosocial factors. BMS symptoms include oral burning, taste disturbances, dry mouth, tingling, and numbness of the tongue. Patients often experience burning sensations on the tongue, palate, gums, lower lip, and throat. In addition to physical symptoms, the condition can lead to sleep disturbances, health problems, and psychological disorders. Diagnosing BMS is challenging and time-consuming. A physician must rule out other causes of symptoms, such as oral infections or nutritional deficiencies. A detailed medical history, intraoral examination, and laboratory tests are necessary for diagnosis. Treating BMS requires the collaboration of multiple specialists, including neurologists, dentists, orofacial pain specialists, and psychologists. Summary: Burning Mouth Syndrome remains poorly understood in terms of its causes and treatment. Patients often experience not only physical discomfort but also psychological issues such as depression and anxiety. Treatment is challenging and often does not provide complete relief. Continued research into this condition is crucial to better understand its nature and find more effective treatment methods. Keywords: BMS, Burning Mouth Syndrome, stomatodynia

Background/Objectives: Limb lengthening and deformity correction techniques, particularly distraction osteogenesis, have significantly evolved in pediatric orthopedics. This study examines the temporal changes of key biochemical markers—vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF-1), and the propeptide of type I collagen (P1NP)—during the limb lengthening process. Methods: Twenty pediatric patients (aged 13–16) underwent distraction osteogenesis using the Circular Hexapod External Fixator. Peripheral blood samples were collected pre-treatment, three weeks after initiating distraction, and one month post-lengthening. Marker levels were measured using ELISA. Results: Serum VEGF concentrations significantly increased during treatment, peaking at T2 (T1 35.91 ± SD 5.54 vs. T2 293.47 ± SD 69.57, p < 0.0001), then declined at T3 (293.47 ± SD 69.57 vs. 40.86 ± SD 6.26, p < 0.0001). FGF-1 showed minor fluctuations initially but significantly increased by T3 (18.14 ± SD 4.57 vs. 41.56 ± SD 17.15, p < 0.01), about 2.3 times higher than baseline. P1NP concentrations exhibited a linear increase, with a significant rise from T2 to T3 (234.06 ± SD 36.57 vs. 280.68 ± SD 35.63, p < 0.05), while the T1 to T2 increase was not statistically significant, indicating ongoing osteoblastic activity and bone formation. Conclusions: This study highlights the dynamic changes in VEGF, FGF-1, and P1NP during distraction osteogenesis, emphasizing their roles as biomarkers of bone regeneration. These findings enhance the understanding of bone healing mechanisms and could inform future therapeutic strategies for pediatric limb lengthening. Further research is warranted to explore their clinical utility.

Introduction and purpose Gilbert's syndrome is a condition caused by a mutation in the gene responsible for the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A1, which conjugates bilirubin in hepatocytes. Its less efficient functioning results in disorder of bilirubin metabolism which leads to increased level of this compound. It has been observed that there is interesting correlation between elevated levels of bilirubin and the risk of developing certain diseases in patients with this condition. The aim of this review is to understand the correlation between elevated bilirubin levels and the risk of developing selected diseases in individuals with Gilbert's syndrome and how to use this knowledge in innovative therapeutic options. State of knowledge Bilirubin was considered a non-functional waste product of heme breakdown, used to be seen as a concerning indicator of liver disease or even a potentially harmful substance for the nervous system. However, lately it turns out that bilirubin has strong antioxidant properties, which help to scavenge free radicals and inhibit lipid oxidation. Recent studies have shown that even slightly elevated levels of bilirubin in the blood, such as those commonly found in individuals with Gilbert's syndrome may protect these patients against diseases associated with increased oxidative stress, an overactive immune response and metabolic dysfunction. Conclusions As a result, individuals with Gilbert's syndrome are observed to have a lower risk of developing diseases related to oxidative stress, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In these patients mortality rate compared to the population with normobilirubinemia is decreased. Based on available studies, it has also been concluded that inducing mild hyperbilirubinemia - iatrogenic Gilbert's syndrome - using appropriate substances may have health benefits.

Introduction and purpose Monoclonal antibodies blocking calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) are a novel treatment strategy developed specifically for prevention of migraine. Four drugs belong to this group: eptinezumab, fremanezumab and galcanezumab, which bind to the peptide; and erenumab, which blocks the CGRP receptor. CGRP is involved in nociception and plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of migraine, as it is released in the trigeminal ganglion as a response to local cerebral vasoconstriction in order to cause dilation of the vessels and maintain cerebral blood flow. Moreover, administration of CGRP, especially among migraineurs, induces a migraine-type headache. The aim of the paper is to discuss the potential of monoclonal antibodies blocking CGRP for the prevention of migraine and to outline their safety and efficacy profile. State of knowledge Several randomised clinical trials have shown a significant efficacy of these drugs compared to placebo in reducing monthly migraine affected days, among patients suffering from both episodic and chronic migraine. Incidence rate of side effects is low; the most common were mild to moderate (e.g. pain at the injection site, upper respiratory tract infections, nasopharyngitis, back pain and urinary tract infection). Anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies exhibit a superior benefit-to-risk ratio than established preventive treatments. Conclusions Randomized controlled trials are still needed in order to compare different anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies and asses their long-term safety profile. In conclusion, these drugs seem to provide promising prospects of improving the lives of migraineurs. As based on current knowledge, the benefits are superior to the likelihood of harm.

Dyspareunia, defined as pain during or immediately after sexual intercourse, is one of the most common and troublesome symptoms of Genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM), affecting a significant number of perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. This paper aims to review and systematize knowledge on pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods of treating this condition, the main cause of which is atrophy of the vulvar and vaginal tissues resulting from estrogen deficiency. An analysis of the available literature indicates that local estrogen therapy remains the gold standard for alleviating symptoms, as it effectively restores the elasticity and lubrication of the epithelium. As alternative therapeutic options, particularly important for patients with contraindications to estrogens, the use of prasterone (DHEA) and oral ospemifene (SERM) is discussed. The paper also presents the role of non-hormonal methods, such as commonly used lubricants and moisturizers as first-line therapy, and hyaluronic acid injections. Attention was also paid to modern laser therapy, which, despite its promising regenerative effects, has not yet been fully approved by scientific societies due to the lack of long-term safety data. The conclusions of the paper emphasise the need for individualised therapy, taking into account the patient's medical history and preferences, which is key to improving the quality of sexual life for women during menopause.