The REDD+ framework (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, along with sustainable forest management and the conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries) incentivizes developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance carbon storage by mitigating deforestation and forest degradation. To receive results-based payments, participating countries must meet United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) requirements for Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) capacities. This study categorizes developing countries into three phases based on MRV implementation levels: phase 1 (readiness), phase 2 (demonstration), and phase 3 (implementation). Unlike the higher implementation levels observed in phase 2 and phase 3 countries, phase 1 countries have received limited attention due to their early stages of REDD+ implementation. However, assessing the potential of these countries for future REDD+ engagement and Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcome (ITMO) collaboration is crucial for achieving REDD+ goals. Thus, this study quantitatively assessed MRV capacity among phase 1 countries using an MRV capacity assessment tool, with the goal of identifying high-potential candidates for REDD+ advancement. We applied an MRV capacity assessment tool to 48 phase 1 countries out of the 71 developing countries registered on the REDD+ web platform as of September 2024. The results reveal that (1) the countries with the highest MRV scores were Ghana, India, Guatemala, Liberia, and Mongolia, with Ghana demonstrating strong potential for progression to the implementation phase due to its robust performance in both Measurement and Reporting components. In contrast, Chad scored the lowest, followed by Uruguay, Namibia, Mali, Cuba, and Benin. (2) Overall, phase 1 countries scored lower in the Reporting (R) component, which emphasizes administrative capacity, compared to the Measurement (M) component, which is technically oriented, highlighting the need for improved administrative capacity, particularly in developing and submitting the National Strategy/Action Plan and Safeguard Information System report to meet Cancun Agreement standards. While this study evaluates REDD+ implementation potential in phase 1 countries based on MRV capacity, future research should explore the effectiveness of strengthening MRV capacity through Official Development Assistance (ODA), assessing potential emissions reduction and ITMO potential.

This study aimed to analyze changes in water retention conservation in response to climate change and forest management strategies and to propose methods for securing sustainable water resources. The KO-G-Dynamic model, a Korean forest growth model, was utilized alongside aboveground and belowground water resource prediction models to evaluate changes in water retention conservation under various climate change scenarios and forest management strategies. The analysis revealed that under climate change and current forest management levels, water retention conservation was projected to reach 37.553 billion tons per year in the 2030s, 38.274 billion tons per year in the 2050s, and 40.306 billion tons per year in the 2080s. Under optimal forest management policies, the water yield and storage were expected to increase to 37.863 billion tons per year in the 2030s, 38.877 billion tons per year in the 2050s, and 41.495 billion tons per year in the 2080s. Notably, watershed-based forest management offers a more practical management unit than conventional legal boundaries, as it reflects hydrological flow and the ecological characteristics of forest environments. Furthermore, the watershed-based forest management scenario demonstrated greater feasibility in securing water resources. This study provides foundational data for climate change adaptation and sustainable forest management and may aid national and local forest planning. The findings underscore the critical role of forest management in mitigating climate change impacts and ensuring long-term water sustainability.

In the context of climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, the forestry sector holds significant potential to contribute to global mitigation efforts. One of the primary drivers of deforestation is land expansion for livestock production. However, both sectors are closely linked to issues of food security and food sovereignty, with the livestock sector playing a crucial role in ensuring food availability. Integrating these two sectors through silvopastoral systems offers a promising solution that supports forest conservation while simultaneously addressing the global food crisis. Among the leading initiatives in forest conservation is REDD+, a mechanism under the UNFCCC that has proven effective in reducing deforestation and forest degradation, as well as in enhancing carbon stock conservation. Following the ratification of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement in 2024, REDD+ has gained recognition as a viable approach for generating international carbon credits. Given the intersection of the livestock and forestry sectors, and the potential of carbon credits to advance the goals of the Paris Agreement, silvopastoral systems could be considered for inclusion in REDD+ strategies under the framework of Article 6.

Human-driven land-use change has significantly altered forest ecosystems and carbon dynamics in mountainous regions. This study aims to quantify land cover transitions and associated forest carbon stocks changes in Bhutan. It also seeks to support the development of a national measurement, reporting, and verification system. Using Landsat-based satellite imagery and object-based image classification techniques, we assessed forest cover transitions, stand structure variations, and forest type changes across temporal intervals. The analysis revealed a consistent increase in agricultural and built-up areas. It also showed a concomitant decline in coniferous forest cover. In particular, agricultural land increased by approximately 0.77 million ha, while coniferous forest decreased by approximately 0.19 million ha over the study period. These changes were driven by both climatic shifts and socio-economic factors. Approximately 57% of Bhutan’s population depends on agriculture. Correspondingly, forest carbon stocks declined from approximately 570 million tC in 1995 to 405 million tC in 2017. This decline was largely attributed to coniferous forest loss and climate-induced mortality. Bhutan has made significant preparations for the implementation of the Warsaw REDD+ framework under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. These preparations include the establishment of a forest reference emission level for submission. However, challenges remain in detecting small-scale land use changes. Additional challenges include addressing spectral misclassification in mountainous regions. Our study provides a scientific baseline to support national forest monitoring and carbon accounting systems. It also offers policy-relevant insights for achieving Bhutan’s nationally determined contributions and enhancing its carbon sink potential.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mitigation outcomes have emerged as a critical instrument in the international carbon market. Such outcomes are particularly important as activation of the Paris Agreement Article 6 mechanism facilitates cross-border transfers of Internationally Transferred mitigation outcomes (ITMOs) and their integration into Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This study examines REDD+ credit utilization in Compliance Carbon Markets (CCMs) and Voluntary Carbon Markets (VCMs) to develop strategic recommendations for Korea’s REDD+ implementation and ITMOs engagement. The study analyzes credit issuance, retirement, and market interrelations through literature and policy review. A SWOT analysis is performed to identify market-specific strengths and weaknesses, leading to an optimized REDD+ utilization strategy. The findings show that, while CCMs ensure credibility through legal enforceability, their strict certification and high entry barriers hinder accessibility, especially for developing countries. In contrast, VCMs offer flexibility and faster credit issuance but struggle with credibility and enforcement issues. As REDD+ crediting shifts from a Results-Based Payment (RBP) system to ITMO-driven mechanisms, international transactions are increasing. Based on these insights, this study suggests that Korea should enhance policy coherence and REDD+ credit credibility by leveraging CCMs through the SO strategy to strengthen Article 6 linkages and international cooperation. At the same time, the country should employ the WO strategy to expand developing country partnerships and establish tailored support mechanisms. Establishing a robust institutional framework and aligning REDD+ verification with international standards will be crucial for integrating ITMOs into Korea’s NDC strategy. Future research should explore the expansion of cross-border REDD+ credit transactions and develop quantitative analyses for robust policy recommendations.