Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers’ health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.

Inulin is a natural polysaccharide classified as a soluble fiber with demonstrated prebiotic activity. Prebiotics can reduce intestinal and systemic inflammation through modulation of the gut microflora and their metabolites. Additionally, extensive research is illuminating the role of macrophages in the interaction between gut microbiota and many systemic inflammatory diseases. In this study, the anti-inflammatory properties of inulin were evaluated using a murine macrophage cell model (RAW 264.7) of inflammation, and the immunomodulatory mechanism was investigated using omics technologies. The cells underwent comprehensive transcriptomic and proteomic analyses to identify the mechanisms responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory phenotype. Functional analyses of these omics results revealed two potential mechanisms that may lead to an overall reduction in cytokine and chemokine transcription: the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway, leading to the downregulation of proinflammatory factors such as COX2, and the promotion of the phase II defense protein Hmox1 via the Nrf2 pathway. This study provides promising targets for research on immune modulation by dietary fibers and offers new strategies for the design of functional ingredients, foods, and nutraceutical products, which could ultimately lead to personalized nutrition and improved consumer health.