Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) is a major economic crop in Thailand, with the ‘Monthong’ cultivar being particularly valued for its commercial significance and extensive cultivation in northern Thailand. However, the thick, hard shell of durian complicates ripeness assessment based on external appearance, often leading to premature harvesting and unripe fruit sales. Variations in consumer preferences for different ripeness stages present challenges in meeting market demands. Due to the absence of a definitive harvest index for ‘Monthong’ durian, this study aims to (1) evaluate the potential of fruit shell color composition as an indicator of maturation stage and (2) assess the impact of harvest maturity on fruit quality and antioxidant content. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in the experiment. Fruits were collected at intervals of 15 days from 15 to 135 days after full bloom (DAFB). The results showed that fruit circumference and length increased progressively with age, with maximum fruit size observed at 90–135 DAFB. Fruit weight, firmness, dry matter, total phenolics, flavonoids, β-carotene, lycopene, and antioxidant activity peaked at 120 DAFB. The values recorded at this stage were: fruit weight (3652.30 g), firmness (42.08 N/cm²), dry matter (37.13%), total phenolics (43.98 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW)), flavonoids (8.33 mg catechin/100 g FW), β-carotene (1.35 mg/100 g FW), lycopene (53.98 mg/100 g FW), and antioxidant activity (6.32 mg TE/100 g FW). The highest total soluble solids (TSS) content was observed at 135 DAFB, with a value of 25 °Brix. These findings indicate that: (1) maturation stages can be effectively differentiated using shell color; (2) ‘Monthong’ durians reach their maximum size at 90 DAFB; (3) fruits harvested at 90–105 DAFB exhibit high firmness and low sweetness, making them suitable for markets prioritizing texture; (4) fruits harvested at 105–120 DAFB exhibit lower firmness and higher sweetness, making them preferable for direct consumption; and (5) total soluble solids, acidity, phenolics, flavonoids, β-carotene, lycopene, and antioxidant activity increase with maturation. These insights provide a valuable reference for optimizing harvest timing to meet specific market and consumer preferences.

The family Termitidae is renowned for its diverse nesting behaviors, with the evolution of epigeal and arboreal nests hypothesized to increase desiccation stress due to greater exposure to air. However, these nests may also alleviate desiccation stress through humidity regulation. To explore the implications of acquiring epigeal and arboreal nests, we investigated desiccation tolerance traits in 16 Termitidae termite species with varying nest types and analyzed trait correlations. Principal component analysis revealed that termites constructing epigeal and arboreal nests exhibited reduced water loss rates and enhanced survival under desiccated conditions. Furthermore, termites building arboreal nests displayed a notably higher water content. Redundancy analysis demonstrated that nest types accounted for a substantial portion (57.2%) of the observed variation in desiccation tolerance. These findings support the hypothesis that epigeal and arboreal nests in termites are associated with increased desiccation stress and increased desiccation tolerance. These findings highlight the role of nest type in influencing desiccation tolerance mechanisms and water regulation strategies in termites.

Background: Mealybugs are major pests that cause sap loss and can significantly reduce the quality and market value of durian fruits. Early detection is essential for effective pest management. This study explores the impact of mealybug infestation on volatile emissions and evaluates the application of a low-cost electronic nose (E-nose) system for early infestation detection and ripeness monitoring. Methods: A prototype electronic nose (E-nose), equipped with four Grove Multichannel Gas Sensor V2 (GM) series sensors selected from a sensitivity survey of 13 sensors, was developed and tested on “Monthong” and “Kradum Thong” durians under outdoor and indoor conditions. Fruit odor signals were analyzed, and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was used to assess classification performance. Results: The E-nose effectively differentiated odor profiles between infested and uninfested fruits and ripeness stages. Infested fruits exhibited a different trend of odor changes during ripening, likely due to stress-induced physiological responses. Discussion: This is the first study demonstrating the use of an E-nose for durian pest detection and ripeness monitoring. The E-nose shows strong potential as a cost-effective, non-destructive tool for early pest detection and postharvest quality control. Future work will focus on scaling the technology with robotic platforms for large-scale monitoring in farms and storage facilities.

The body size of an animal plays a crucial role in determining its trophic level and position within the food web, as well as its interactions with other species. In the symbiosis between Termitomyces and fungus-growing termites, termites rely on nutrition of fungal nodules produced by Termitomyces . To understand whether the size of termites and fungal nodules are related to their partner specificity, we quantified the size of termite farmer caste, and the size and density of nodules in termite nests of four genera of fungus-growing termites, and identified their cultivated Termitomyces fungus species based on internal transcribed spacer regions and partial large subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences. The results showed that the size and density of fungal nodules were different among Termitomyces clades and revealed a constant trade-off between size and density among clades. The nodule size of each clade has low variation and fits normal distribution, indicating that size is a stabilized trait. Moreover, we found larger termite genera cultivated Termitomyces with larger but less numerous nodules. Based on these results, we concluded that there is a size specificity between Termitomyces and fungus-growing termites, which may lead to diversification of Termitomyces as adaptations to different termite genera.

Termite mounds are a ubiquitous feature of savanna ecosystems, yet the mechanisms by which termites (Blattodea: Termitoidae) mitigate the challenges posed by seasonal drought and flooding through mound construction remain insufficiently explored. This study investigates the material properties, water retention capabilities, and resistance to raindrop penetration across three distinct layers of Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland, 1898) (Blattodea: Termitidae) nests. Our findings reveal a pronounced diversification and specialization of materials and functions across these layers. Specifically, the outer layer has decreased moisture permeability, the middle layer has enhanced resistance to water penetration, and the innermost layer has a high capacity for water retention. The integration of these functionally specialized layers provides a compelling evidence for explaining how these termites are able to adapt to the fluctuating environmental conditions characteristic of savanna ecosystems. Furthermore, this highlights the nest’s buffering capability against environmental stressors. The complexity of this construction, marked by a level of self-organization rarely observed in the animal kingdom, underscores a significant instance of architectural ingenuity among non-human builders.

The black soldier fly (‘BSF’, Hermetia illucens L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) is widely used in organic waste conversion and animal-feed production, yet its physiological responses to moisture variation across developmental stages remain poorly understood. This study examined stage-specific desiccation tolerance and its relationship to pupation and adult emergence. Larvae, prepupae and pupae from multiple colonies were evaluated for body water content, water-loss rate and surface-to-weight ratio under controlled ambient relative humidity conditions (50, 70, 100%). Additional experiments investigated the effects of direct larval surface moisture (dry vs. wet) of BSF larvae and ambient humidity on pupation and emergence probabilities of BSF prepupae using Cox proportional-hazard models. Water-loss rates were highest in larvae and prepupae but lowest in pupae. Prepupae with wet surfaces failed to pupate, whereas dry prepupae successfully pupated and emerged under high humidity. The results indicate that BSF pupae possess the greatest hydration-preserving capacity and that both excessive dryness and surface wetness reduce survival. Successful pupation requires a dry body surface combined with a high-humidity environment. Any low-moisture substrate capable of absorbing surface water, even simple tissue paper, can therefore substitute for conventional substrates when humidity is maintained near saturation. These findings provide practical guidance for optimising humidity management and substrate design in rearing system, and indicate the importance of clarifying the physiological mechanisms underlying BSF moisture tolerance. Such advancements will enhance black soldier fly production efficiency, supporting sustainable insect-based protein production and contributing to Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) through strengthened alternative feed resources and food security.