Heavy metal contamination in the food chain is of serious concern due to the potential risks involved. The results of this study revealed the presence of maximum concentration of heavy metals in the canal followed by sewerage and tube well water. Similarly, the vegetables and respective soils irrigated with canal water were found to have higher heavy metal contamination followed by sewerage- and tube-well-watered samples. However, the heavy metal content of vegetables under study was below the limits as set by FAO/WHO, except for lead in canal-water-irrigated spinach (0.59 mg kg⁻¹), radish pods (0.44 mg kg⁻¹) and bitter gourd (0.33 mg kg⁻¹). Estimated daily intakes of heavy metals by the consumption of selected vegetables were found to be well below the maximum limits. However, a complete estimation of daily intake requires the inclusion of other dietary and non-dietary exposure sources of heavy metals.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk is among the most carcinogenic compounds, relatively high levels being consumed, especially by the most vulnerable age groups, i.e. infants and the elderly. Reports on its prevalence are constantly being received from various parts of the world compelling nations to establish their own standard limits for AFM1. Global review of the literature indicates the existence of methods of partial decontamination of AFM1, however; evidence based studies do not suggest that any single strategy as a coherent and complete solution to the issue. Microbial decontamination of AFM1 has emerged as the most suitable method up to now but the stability of toxin-microbial cell complexes still remains questionable. This review discusses the chemical nature, established maximum permissible limits and prevalence of AFM1 in various countries from 2009 to 2014. Moreover, the possible mechanisms for AFM1 reduction mainly the microbial decontamination and the stability and bioaccessibility of microbial-AFM1 complexes are also discussed.

Impact of unhygienic conditions during slaughtering and processing on spread of antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli from poultry