The COVID-19 pandemic poses a severe threat to public health, resulting in high levels of mortality and morbidity. In response, there has been a significant usage of hand sanitizers in homes, public places, and healthcare systems. In the global panic, the market has a variety of products, and there are serious concerns about the safety and the potential of hand sanitization as the blue bullet for COVID-19. Therefore, this article presents a critical review of types of hand sanitizers available on the market, their active ingredients coupled with their mode of action in the wake of antiviral efficacies. In addition, the adoption of a culture of hand sanitization by society could raise the demand for hand sanitizers for an extended period. The continuous use of hand sanitizers might pose some safety concerns. Consequently, the review articulates potential dangers associated with hand sanitizer used to equip suppliers and manufacturers with knowledge on the safety of different ingredients and formulations, hence safeguarding the final users.

This paper applies a semi-quantitative approach to review the diversity, environmental controls, detection methods, human health risks, and mitigation of cyanotoxins in drinking water systems (DWSs). It discusses the environmental factors controlling the occurrence of cyanotoxins, presents the merits and limitations of emerging methods of their detection (qPCR, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, and electrochemical biosensors), and outlines the human exposure pathways and health outcomes with identification of high-risk groups and settings. High-risk groups include (1) communities relying on untreated drinking water from unsafe, polluted water sources and (2) low-income countries where cyanotoxins are not routinely monitored in DWSs. The fate and behavior processes are discussed, including removing cyanotoxins in DWSs based on conventional and advanced treatment processes. The available methods for cyanotoxin removal presented in this paper include (1) polymer-based adsorbents, (2) coagulation/flocculation, (3) advanced oxidation processes, (4) ultra- and nanofiltration, and (5) multi-soil layer systems. Future research should address (1) detection and fate in storage and conveyance facilities and at the point of consumption, (2) degradation pathways and toxicity of by-products or metabolites, (3) interactive health effects of cyanotoxins with legacy and emerging contaminants, (4) removal by low-cost treatment techniques (e.g., solar disinfection, boiling, bio-sand filtration, and chlorination), (5) quantitative health risk profiling of high-risk groups, and (6) epidemiological studies to link the prevalence of human health outcomes (e.g., cancer) to cyanotoxins in DWSs.

Antibiotic and heavy metal-resistant pathogenic bacteria associated with fish from contaminated water can spread diseases. This study aims to identify antibiotics, lead, and silver nitrate-resistant bacteria in 180 fish samples from Lake Chivero using bacterial identification, disk-diffusion, and agar dilution methodologies. Of the identified 157 bacterial isolates, 46 (29.3%) were Staphylococcus, 35 (22.3%) were Escherichia coli, 26 (16.6%) were Aeromonas spp., 15 (9.6%) were Shigella spp., 13 (8.3%) were Bacillus cereus, 12 (7.6%) were Edwardsiella tarda, 7 (4.5%) were Proteus mirabilis, and 3 (1.9%) were Listeria spp. Gentamicin was the most effective, with 100% of the bacterial species susceptible, followed by neomycin (68.2%), tetracycline (56.7%), cloxacillin (52.2%), streptomycin (51%), erythromycin (32.6%), lincomycin (15.3%), and rifampicin (13.4%). For the eight taxa investigated, the multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index ranged from 0.50 to 0.88, with all values greater than 0.2. E. Coli and Proteus spp. had the highest MAR index values (0.88 each), followed by Bacillus, Aeromonas, and Staphylococcus (0.75 each), and Listeria, Edwardsiella, and Shigella (0.63 each). The isolated bacteria were multidrug-resistant, with varying resistance levels to lead and silver nitrate, with silver nitrate resistance rates ranging from 23.1–88.5% and lead resistance rates ranging from 30.8–69.2%. The multidrug resistance (MDR) pathogenic bacteria are found in fish from contaminated Lake Chivero, posing a health risk to humans. As a result, adequate waste disposal is required, as is multi-sectoral monitoring of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and public education about the health risks associated with fish and fish-derived products.

The threat of antibiotic resistance and the antecedent evolution of harmless microbes into superbugs is an epidemic of global concern. This study assessed the in-vitro herb to herb antibacterial activity of acetone, methanol, and water extracts of Ximenia caffra Sond. Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. Allium sativum L, and Cinnamomum verum J.Presl. against multidrug-resistant (MDR) mastitogenic Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Their minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC), and zone of inhibition against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae were measured using a microplate serial dilution technique and agar-well diffusion method. All the acetone and methanol plant extracts showed antimicrobial activity against MDR isolates tested. The MIC for acetone and methanol extracts against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae ranged from 6–25 mg/mL and decreased in the combined herbs from 1 mg/mL to 13 mg/mL. The MBC for acetone and methanol extracts against the tested bacteria ranged from 6–50 mg/mL. The acetone and methanol extracts had inhibition zones against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae ranging from 14–22 mm. The plant extracts showed a synergistic effect when combined with Gentamycin and Lincomycin as the zone of inhibitions was increased and ranged from 25–29 mm. Findings indicate that all the extracts had a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the growth of multidrug-resistant S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. The study’s findings further reinforce the importance of these extracts in traditional veterinary and healthcare practices. As a result, this study concludes that antibiotics and plant extracts can be administered concurrently to treat mastitis caused mostly by S. aureus and K. pneumoniae.