Plants face multifactorial environmental stressors mainly due to global warming and climate change which affect their growth, metabolism, and productivity. Among them, is drought stress which alters intracellular water relations, photosynthesis, ion homeostasis and elevates reactive oxygen species which eventually reduce their growth and yields. In addition, drought alters soil physicochemical properties and beneficial microbiota which are critical for plant survival. Recent reports have shown that climate change is increasing the occurrence and intensity of drought in many regions of the world, which has become a primary concern in crop productivity, ecophysiology and food security. To develop ideas and strategies for protecting plants against the harmful effects of drought stress and meeting the future food demand under climatic calamities an in-depth understanding of molecular regulatory pathways governing plant stress responses is imperative. In parallel, more research is needed to understand how drought changes the features of soil, particularly microbiomes, as microorganisms can withstand drought stress faster than plants, which could assist them to recover. In this review we first discuss the effect of drought stress on plants, soil physicochemical properties and microbiomes. How drought stress affects plant microbe interactions and other microbe-driven beneficial traits was also highlighted. Next, we focused on how plants sense drought and undergo biochemical reprogramming from root to shoot to regulate diverse adaptive traits. For instance, the role of calcium (Ca²⁺), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and abscisic acid (ABA) in modulating different cellular responses like stomata functioning, osmotic adjustment, and other adaptive traits. We also provide an update on the role of different hormones in drought signaling and their crosstalk which allows plants to fine tune their responses during drought stress. Further, we discussed how recurrent drought exposure leads to the development of short-term memory in plants that allows them to survive future drought stresses. Lastly, we discussed the application of omics and biotechnological-based mitigating approaches to combat drought stress in sustainable agriculture. This review offers a deeper understanding of multiple factors that are related to drought stress in plants which can be useful for drought improvement programs.

Early flowering-related factors play pivotal roles in coordinating plant growth and reproductive development. In this study, we investigated the biological function of early flowering gene (ELF) in Arabidopsis thaliana using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing and construction of overexpression approaches. Two independent ELF overexpression (OE-ELF) and genome-edited (ge-elf) lines were generated and systemically analyzed. ELF overexpression significantly enhanced early seedling performance, increasing germination rate and seedling fresh weight by up to 8.7%, while genome-edited lines exhibited a marked reduction. Root growth was strongly promoted in OE-ELF plants, with root length increase of 85% and 75%, whereas ge-elf lines showed a reduction of up to 48%. At later developmental stages, OE-ELF plants displayed enhanced vegetative growth, including increased leaf length (32%), leaf area (91%), and accelerated flowering (21% earlier than wild type). In contrast, ge-elf delayed flowering by up to 25% and resulted in compact plant architecture. Reproductive development was severely compromised in ge-elf plants, which exhibited malformed inflorescences, reduced pollen germination, shortened silique (45%), and a drastic decrease in seed number per silique (70%). Conversely, OE-ELF plants showed increased silique number and seed per silique. Molecular analysis revealed that ELF positively regulates key flowering-related genes, including FLC, SOC1, AP1, and LFY, which correlated strongly with growth and reproductive traits. Our results demonstrate that ELF functions as a central regulator integrating vegetative growth, floral development, male fertility, and seed production in Arabidopsis thaliana.

One of the largest and most significant crops in worldwide is maize. It is cultivated in most parts of Pakistan across a variety of soil types and climates.1 Well-drained, fertile loamy soils are i...

Heavy metal (HM) and metalloid exposure induces oxidative stress in plants resulting in growth inhibition and cellular damage. This study investigated the phytotoxic and genotoxic effects of cadmium (Cd²⁺), chromium (Cr⁶⁺), and arsenic (As³⁺) on Capsicum annuum L. (green chili) cultivated under soil conditions. Increasing concentration of these trio ions significantly reduced growth parameters in a dose-dependent manner. Among them, As³⁺ exhibited the highest toxicity, completely inhibiting seed germination at 100 ppm, reduced the vigor index by 92.5%, and completely suppressed the radicle and plumule elongation. Scanning electron microscopy revealed marked deformation of root tips, while confocal microscopy indicated dose-dependent cytotoxicity in root cells. High concentrations of As³⁺ substantially reduced root and shoot biomass, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and protein content. Conversely, stress markers such as proline, malondialdehyde (MDA), and electrolyte leakage (EL) were increased by 94%, 80%, and 68%, respectively, over control. Antioxidant enzyme activities- CAT, APX, POD, GPX, SOD, and GR in chili leaves were strongly induced at 100 ppm, indicating enhanced oxidative defense pathways. On the other hand, Cd^2⁺and Cr⁶⁺ also showed toxic effects in chili plants. Metal uptake was highest at 100 ppm, with roots accumulating more Cd²⁺, Cr⁶⁺, and As³⁺ than shoots. Genotoxic analysis of root meristems revealed a sharp decline in mitotic index (MI) and multiple chromosomal aberrations, including micronuclei, stickiness, laggards, bridges, and fragments. Overall, Cd²⁺, Cr⁶⁺, and As³⁺ severely impaired plant growth, physiological responses, and genome integrity in chili, with As³⁺ exerting strong toxic effects. These findings highlight serious environmental and food-safety concerns, particularly in contaminated agricultural regions where such metals can enter the edible food chain. The results emphasize the need for mitigation strategies and field-based interventions such as microbial remediation or soil amendments to reduce heavy-metal/metalloids risks under real-world conditions.