Thyroid nodules, prevalent in 2% to 65% of the general population depending on diagnostic methodology, represent a significant clinical concern despite a low malignancy rate, typically 1% to 5%. A substantial proportion of thyroid cancers are small, indolent lesions, allowing for conservative management with favorable prognoses. Nodule detection commonly occurs via palpation, clinical examination, or incidental radiological findings. Established risk factors include advanced age, female gender, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and estrogen dominance. Despite conservative management potential, a considerable number of thyroid nodules in Europe are unnecessarily referred for surgery, incurring unfavorable risk-to-benefit ratios and increased costs. Minimally invasive techniques (MITs), encompassing ethanol and thermal ablation modalities (e.g., laser, radiofrequency, microwave), offer outpatient, nonsurgical management for symptomatic or cosmetically concerning thyroid lesions. These procedures, performed under ultrasound guidance without general anesthesia, are associated with low complication rates. MITs effectively achieve substantial and sustained nodule volume reduction (57–77% at 5 years), correlating with improved local symptoms. Thermal ablation (TA) is particularly favored for solid thyroid lesions due to its precise and predictable tissue destruction. Optimal TA balances near-complete nodule eradication to prevent recurrence with careful preservation of adjacent anatomical structures to minimize complications. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is widely adopted, while microwave ablation (MWA) presents a promising alternative addressing RFA limitations. Percutaneous laser ablation (LA), an early image-guided thyroid ablation technique, remains a viable option for benign, hyperfunctioning, and malignant thyroid pathologies. This review comprehensively evaluates RFA, MWA, and LA for thyroid nodule treatment, assessing current evidence regarding their efficacy, safety, comparative outcomes, side effects, and outlining future research directions.

Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is one of the most groundbreaking medical innovations in history, enabling safe and effective heart surgery by temporarily replacing the function of the heart and lungs. This review starts with ancient concepts of cardiopulmonary function and then traces the evolution of CPB through important physiological and anatomical discoveries, culminating in the development of the modern heart–lung machine. In addition to examining the contributions of significant figures like Galen, Ibn al-Nafis, William Harvey, and John Gibbon, we also examine the ethical and technical challenges faced in the early days of open heart surgery. Modern developments are also discussed, such as miniature extracorporeal systems, off-pump surgical techniques, and the increasing importance of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and extracorporeal life support (ECLS), while the evolving role of perfusionists in diverse cardiac teams and the variations in global access to CPB technology are also given special attention. We look at recent advancements in CPB, including customized methods, nanotechnology, artificial intelligence-guided perfusion, and organ-on-chip testing, emphasizing CPB’s enduring significance as a technological milestone and a living example of the cooperation of science, medicine, and human inventiveness because it bridges the gap between the past and the future.

Cardiac surgery, now a routine medical intervention, was once deemed unthinkable—not merely due to technical limitations, but because of deep-seated cultural, religious, and philosophical prohibitions. This article traces the historical and ethical trajectory of the human heart from a sacred, inviolable symbol of the soul to a surgically accessible organ. Through an interdisciplinary lens that integrates medical history, anthropology, theology, and contemporary bioethics, we examine how shifts in metaphysical belief, technological progress, and moral reasoning gradually legitimized cardiac intervention. From ancient Egyptian funerary rites and classical cardiocentric models to medieval religious taboos and Enlightenment redefinitions of the body, the heart’s transformation reflects broader changes in how humanity conceives life, death, and identity. The emergence of modern cardiac surgery, especially heart transplantation and extracorporeal technologies, raised new ethical dilemmas, challenging the boundaries between tissue and meaning, biology and personhood. This study argues that despite its clinical secularization, the heart retains a unique symbolic gravity that continues to shape public perception and professional responsibility. In the age of precision medicine, cardiac surgery remains not only a technical act but an existential gesture—a transgression that demands both scientific mastery and moral reverence.

Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is one of the most groundbreaking medical innovations in history, enabling safe and effective heart surgery by temporarily replacing the function of the heart and lungs, with this article starting with ancient concepts of cardiopulmonary function, then tracing the evolution of CPB through important physiological and anatomical discoveries, culminating in the development of the modern heart-lung machine. In addition to examining the contributions of significant figures like Galen, Ibn al-Nafis, William Harvey, and John Gibbon, we also examine the ethical and technical challenges faced in the early days of open-heart surgery. Modern developments are also discussed, such as miniature extracorporeal systems, off-pump surgical techniques, and the increasing importance of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and extracorporeal life support (ECLS), while the evolving role of perfusionists in diverse cardiac teams and the variations in global access to CPB technology are also given special attention. We look at recent advancements in CPB, including customized methods, nanotechnology, artificial intelligence-guided perfusion, and organ-on-chip testing, emphasizing CPB's enduring significance as a technological milestone and a living example of the cooperation of science, medicine, and human inventiveness because it bridges the gap between the past and the future.

Background and Objectives: Laparoscopic procedures have become a routine approach in colorectal surgery. We aimed to evaluate intraoperative, postoperative and pathological outcomes of laparoscopic right hemicolectomy in comparison with open right hemicolectomy. Materials and Methods: We reviewed our database for colorectal surgery and collected data regarding right hemicolectomies performed over a period of 10 years regarding patient characteristics, operative outcomes and postoperative outcomes. We compared laparoscopic with open right hemicolectomies. All the anastomoses in the laparoscopic group were performed intracorporeally. Results: We included 384 cases, 74 (19.3%) laparoscopic and 310 (80.7%) open right hemicolectomies. Baseline characteristics were comparable between the two groups. Conversion rate was low (2.7%). A drain was placed more often in the open colectomies (p < 0.001). Laparoscopic colectomies lasted longer by 25 min on average in the entire cohort (p = 0.002) and by 30 min in cancer-only cases without concomitant procedures (p < 0.001). Laparoscopic procedures yielded more lymph nodes (p = 0.007), as well as longer distal resection margins (p < 0.001) and total specimen (p < 0.001). There was no difference between the two approaches concerning intraoperative complications (p = 0.36) or need for transfusion (p = 0.708). There was also no difference regarding overall (p = 0.361) or major complications (p = 1), as well as anastomotic leak (p = 0.475), surgical site infections (p = 0.275) or readmission rates (p = 1). Hospitalisation duration was shorter by 3 days after laparoscopic surgery in the entire cohort (p < 0.001), as well as when cancer-only cases without concomitant procedures were considered (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Laparoscopic right hemicolectomy with intracorporeal anastomosis provides perioperative safety and pathology outcomes comparable to open surgery, while significantly reducing hospital stay.

Background: The concept of pneuma—originating in ancient Greek philosophy as a vital force linked to breath and life—played a fundamental role in early medical theories, particularly in cardiopulmonary physiology. This study explores the historical evolution of pneuma, tracing its influence from pre-Socratic thought to modern medical science. Methods: A comprehensive historical analysis was conducted through a systematic review of primary texts from ancient medical and philosophical traditions, including works by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, and medieval Islamic scholars. Secondary sources were examined to assess the transformation of pneuma as scientific discoveries advanced the understanding of respiration and circulation. Results: Pneuma was initially regarded as a life-sustaining force responsible for circulation, respiration, and neural function. It was central to Hippocratic and Galenic medicine but began to lose scientific validity with Ibn al-Nafis’s discovery of pulmonary circulation and William Harvey’s demonstration of systemic circulation. The identification of oxygen by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier in the 18th century led to the final displacement of pneuma as a physiological concept. Conclusion: The historical trajectory of pneuma illustrates the transition from speculative medical theories to empirical science. While no longer relevant in modern physiology, pneuma has left an enduring legacy in medical terminology and holistic perspectives on health, highlighting the deep connections between ancient and contemporary medical thought.