Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb, Phyllanthus niruri L., and Morinda citrifolia L. are Indonesian medicinal herbs used empirically as traditional therapeutics for maintaining health. The cocktail extract of these three plants (CECPM) had been developed and demonstrated immunostimulant activity in rats. This study aimed to evaluate the acute and subchronic toxicity of CECPM in vivo. The acute toxicity assay was conducted by orally administering a range dose of CECPM (313, 625, 1250, 2500, or 5000mg/kg body weight (bw) on female mice once and then evaluating the toxic symptom every day for 14days later. The chronic toxicity test was carried out by giving various doses of CECPM (600, 800, and 1000mg/kg·bw) to female and male rats orally continuously for 90 consecutive days. The signs of toxicities were evaluated at the 90- and 28 days postadministration. The acute oral toxicity assays showed that there was no toxic syndrome and mortality found during the period of the experiment. The lethal dose level (LD₅₀) of CECPM was more than 5000g/kg, which was categorized as practically non-toxic. Meanwhile, in the sub-chronic toxicity study, some parameters tested at 90 days postadministration and after 28 days of withdrawal, such as the body weight, relative organ weight, food intake, hematological and biochemical blood parameters, and also histopathological examination of five primary tissues (heart, liver, kidney, spleen, and lung) revealed no abnormalities. There was no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for the present study of CECPM 1000mg/kg·bw of the rat. Therefore, it is concluded that the orally administered CECPM was relatively nontoxic during acute and subchronic toxicology studies.

The high sedimentation rate of Rawapening Lake is both an environmental challenge and a potential resource. Seedlings currently rely on single-use plastic polybags, which contribute significantly to plastic waste. The use of mineral soil as a growing medium can accelerate natural resource depletion. This study aims to evaluate the feasibility and sustainability of utilizing lake sediment as an alternative seedling media through soil block technology. An integrated Life Cycle Assessment was conducted to quantify the environmental impacts, and Multidimensional Scaling was applied to assess sustainability across environmental, technological, economic, social, and institutional dimensions. Field data from ten seedling producers using soil blocks and ten using polybags were analyzed. The results showed that soil block media reduced Global Warming Potential by 48% compared to polybags, increased phosphorus and organic matter content, and was more financially efficient, with an increase in productivity of 90.24% and a revenue cost ratio of 24.56%. Sustainability analysis classified the innovation as moderately sustainable, with the highest scores in the environmental and technological dimensions. Institutional support was identified as a limiting factor. These findings suggest that sediment-based soil block media are a viable, lower-impact alternative for seedling production, although scaling up will require policy and institutional support.

Electrochemical CO2 reduction (ECR) to formic acid is widely proposed as a carbon utilization strategy, yet the environmental implications of both material selection and process parameters remain poorly quantified. A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment was conducted evaluating four reported high-performance electrocatalysts (SnS2, In2O3, Bi0.6Cu0.4, and In2S3/In2O3) against conventional methyl formate hydrolysis for the production of 1 kg of formic acid. We found that, under grid electricity, all ECR scenarios impose substantially greater environmental burdens than the conventional process, with climate change impacts ranging from 4.476 to 5.934 kg CO2-eq kg-1 FA. Power consumption during water electrolysis constitutes the dominant impact driver, though synthesis-stage energy demands contribute disproportionately for SnS2 (66% of total electricity). Despite achieving the highest Faradaic efficiency (~98%), Bi0.6Cu0.4 exhibits a mineral resource depletion impact 23-fold above the conventional baseline, revealing a fundamental tension between electrochemical selectivity and material resource sustainability. Substitution with hydropower or wind electricity reduces GWP by 43–63%, yet material resource and ecotoxicity burdens remain structurally decoupled from electricity source. Water use is the sole category where all ECR scenarios outperform conventional production, with freshwater reductions of 84–94%. Therefore, sustainable deployment of ECR requires coordinated advancement across grid decarbonization, synthesis redesign, and catalyst material optimization rather than electrochemical performance improvement alone. Extending beyond electrochemical CO₂ reduction (ECR), this model can be adapted and applied to thermal and photocatalytic processes for converting CO₂ into a range of products.

Non-productive oil palm trunks (OPT), rich in starch and cellulose, are promising raw materials for bioethanol production. Effective pretreatment is essential to optimize the cellulose-to-lignin ratio, facilitating hydrolysis. This study investigates the delignification efficiency of natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDES) on OPT, focusing on the impact of different hydrogen donors. Using a 1:2 ratio of hydrogen bond acceptor to donor and maintaining consistent reaction conditions, betaine/lactic acid and betaine/glycerol NaDES achieved optimal delignification, reducing lignin by 26.73% and 26.46%, respectively, at 100°C for 2 hours. The treated biomass was analyzed using FTIR, SEM, and XRD, confirming the effectiveness of these NaDES in lignin degradation. The results demonstrated that both betaine/lactic acid and betaine/glycerol, are natural solvent with significant potential for breaking down lignin in non-productive oil palm trunks. The findings suggest that betaine-based NaDES are promising for enhancing bioethanol production from oil palm trunks through efficient delignification.