Background: Infertility is a social challenge common among couples ranging from sub-Sahara, Asia and different parts of the world. Infertility occurs as result of malformation of the uterus, poor diet, illness, and continuous unprotected sexual activity. Aim: To provide an update on medicinal plants used across regions in the world capable of healing female infertility. Setting: This article provides a world overview of medicinal plant activity from different regions across the globe. The use of modern medicine is effective but often not at the reach of the majority. Methods: The article summarises previous literature on the use of medicinal plants in female fertility treatments. Findings indicated the importance of traditional healers in woman’s infertility. The traditional healers used materials prepared from herbs. Herbs are derived from plants and plant extracts of various natural resources, including plant leaves, bark, flowers, roots, fruits, and berries. Results: Female infertility has been proven to respond well to herbal-based therapy. Women’s infertility is a condition that is receiving more attention concerning medicinal herbs. Several kinds of plants have been used in different regions of the world to cure female infertility. The performance of the various medicinal plants depends on accumulation of bioactive ingredients. Conclusion: Modern plants have shown potential in enhancing female fertility through their various therapeutic properties and bioactive compounds. Overall, while there is promise in using plants for female fertility holds promise, further research and clinical trials are necessary to establish their safety and effectiveness. Contribution: These herbs can be used as an alternative or supplemental therapy for female infertility, and further research is required to determine their effectiveness and safety.

Heavy metals are persistent environmental sources affecting soil quality. Therefore, selecting plant species that can germinate and grow under heavy metal stress is critical for phytoremediation. This study examines the effects of varying concentrations of cadmium (Cd²⁺), lead (Pb²⁺), mercury (Hg²⁺), and arsenic (As³⁺) on germination and growth Trifolium repens, with emphasis on its response to heavy metal stress in South African soils. Seeds with uniform size were sampled and placed in plastic dishes with a layer of towel paper on the bottom and were evenly spaced in each dish on the surface of the towel paper with 5 mL of each metal concentrations. The findings revealed that the metal type and concentration significantly impacted almost all the physiological parameters of Trifolium repens at (P < 0.001). In contrast, there were no significant variations between treatments for the untreated plants at (P > 0.05), indicating that the alterations were primarily related to the experimental setup. There was a consistent inverse relationship between metal concentration and plant performance. The best physiological and germination results were achieved at the lowest treatment level (0.5 mM) whereas plants were extremely affected at 10 mM.

Heavy metal contamination represents a critical environmental challenge because of its substantial risks to both human health and ecosystem stability. Phytoremediation, which relies on plants and associated microorganisms to remove or immobilize pollutants, has therefore received increasing research attention in recent years. Microbial inoculants, including endophytic fungi and rhizobia, have been shown to enhance phytoremediation efficiency in both legumes and cereals. External amendments such as indole-3-acetic acid and biochar further improve soil physicochemical properties, stimulate plant growth, and reduce heavy metal uptake. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria also mitigate metal-induced toxicity by enhancing plant stress tolerance and physiological resilience. Evidence indicates that co-inoculation with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and rhizobia markedly strengthens the capacity of leguminous plants to remediate contaminated soils, offering a promising strategy for sustainable land rehabilitation. Collectively, these findings deepen understanding of plant–microbe–metal interactions and highlight the potential of integrated biotechnological approaches for effective soil restoration.

Heavy metal contamination of soils, water bodies, and food crops represents one of the most persistent and escalating environmental challenges of the twenty-first century. Driven by rapid industrialization, intensive agriculture, urbanization, and mining, metals including lead (Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) have accumulated in ecosystems worldwide, posing severe risks to soil integrity, plant productivity, and human health through bioaccumulation and biomagnification across food chains. This review synthesizes global trends in heavy metal contamination from 1990 to 2025, traces the evolution of remediation strategies from conventional physicochemical treatments toward integrated green and hybrid approaches, and evaluates the role of Trifolium spp. (clovers) as phytoremediators. Special attention is given to Trifolium repens (white clover) and its documented capacities for metal uptake, rhizosphere enhancement, and nitrogen fixation. The review further examines the emerging waste-to-resource paradigm employing valorized chicken eggshell and sugarcane bagasse as low-cost biosorbents, including their individual and synergistic performance in removing Pb, Cd, As, and Hg from contaminated matrices. Regional findings from Durban, South Africa, illustrate how WWTP effluents and riverine contamination translate into tangible soil and crop exposure risks, underscoring the urgent need for locally appropriate, sustainable remediation solutions. The integration of Trifolium spp. with eggshell- and bagasse-derived amendments is proposed as a promising low-cost, green technology framework for contaminated land management in resource-constrained settings.