The excessive occupation of ecological space (ES) due to city expansion and construction can reduce a variety of natural values and socioeconomic benefits, which would also bring challenges associated with ecological rights and justice between urban areas (with economic impetus) and rural areas (with rich ecological endowments). A more sustainable development mode is required to shift population–industry–land (PIL) allocation from urban-led commensalism (ULC) to PIL interaction by urban–rural mutualism (URM). Thus, an urban–rural integration six-step symbiotic framework (UISS) was built to reflect how the change in urban–rural integration symbiotic mode (the ULC to URM transformation process) can ameliorate socioeconomic inequity in ecological space (IES). Moreover, the two-way fixed-effects model and heterogeneity analysis are used to discuss how the improvement of urban–rural integration symbiotic development level (URI) ameliorates the IES under socioeconomic development to reduce the unfairness, differences between regions, and mismatch of gravity centers from the perspective of spatiotemporal and dynamic changes under various symbiotic environments. The comprehensive multi-perspective analysis of IES based on the symbiotic framework (MEU) was applied to reflect the effect of dynamic PIL interaction changes from ULC mode to URM mode on IES in Yunnan Province, China. The results can be obtained as follows: (1) The URI including symbiotic units of PIL shows a steady rise in growth, with a maximum growth rate of 22.89%, which indicates that the URI has changed from the urban-led commensalism development mode to the urban–rural mutualism development mode. (2) The IES in temporal unfairness has been steadily alleviated, but the spatial differences remain obvious due to the unique symbiotic environment. The dynamic changes in the distance of the gravity centers between ES and PO-IN reflect an increasing mismatch in some regions (e.g., Kunming), while decreasing in others (e.g., Qujing). (3) URI generates a significant symbiotic effect on IES to reduce unfairness, differences, and mismatch, especially through the integration of industrial and population symbiotic units. The heterogeneity analysis shows that a good symbiotic environment, including business environment, industrial structure, transportation conditions, and government size, is conducive to ameliorating IES through the environmental adaptability of symbiotic units. All the results can provide a scientific reference for regional sustainable planning and management under mutualistic population–industry–land interaction between urban and rural areas.

Introduction: Against the backdrop of climate change and accelerating urbanization, cities are increasingly exposed to extreme precipitation events, posing substantial threats to sustainable urban development and macroeconomic stability. Using the 2012 “7.21” Beijing rainstorm as a case study, this study assesses its economic consequences and evaluates the relative suitability of Input- Output (IO) and Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models for disaster loss assessment. Methods: This study proposes an integrated modeling framework that combines IO and CGE models. Specifically, the IO model is used to estimate direct and sectoral indirect losses, while the CGE model simulates broader macroeconomic impacts and post-disaster recovery trajectories. In addition, resilience is incorporated into the CGE framework to capture the adaptive capacity of the economic system following a disaster. Results: The event caused substantial direct losses in the agricultural and transportation sectors, while associated supply-chain disruptions transmitted indirect shocks throughout the broader economy. IO models are well suited to the rapid estimation of short-term impacts, whereas CGE models account for endogenous price adjustments and medium- to long-term recovery trajectories. Incorporating resilience into the CGE framework substantially improves the accuracy of recovery estimates. Discussion: These findings establish resilience as an essential dimension of disaster impact assessment and post-disaster economic recovery analysis. Enhanced resilience management can reduce losses in disaster-vulnerable sectors, particularly transportation and agriculture, whose production and cost structures are especially susceptible to external shocks. The comparative analysis further indicates that model selection should be guided by assessment objectives, temporal scope, and the relevant policy context. Conclusion: This study incorporates resilience into an integrated IO-CGE analytical framework, thereby strengthening the assessment of disaster-related economic impacts. The proposed framework provides a more accurate basis for estimating economic losses from extreme rainstorms and offers theoretical support for formulating post-disaster recovery strategies and urban disaster management policies.

The reduction of substantial agricultural greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions can make a significant contribution to climate change mitigation and regional sustainable development. Given that most of the current studies about eco-efficiency only considers CO₂, while ignoring other GHGs, such as CH₄ and N₂O, this study analyzes the spatiotemporal characteristics of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O, and considers them as undesirable outputs to assess the agricultural eco-efficiency (AEE) in the North China Plain from 2004 to 2022, respectively, including AEECO₂, AEECH₄, AEEN₂O, and AEEGHG. The results show that (1) Agricultural GHGs emissions increased significantly before 2018 and slightly decreased after 2018, due to the enforcement of energy-saving and emission-reducing policies. Spatially, GHG emissions are higher in the north but lower in the south. (2) The study demonstrated that incorporating CH₄ and N₂O significantly affects efficiency (p < 0.01). AEECH₄ and AEEN₂O are higher than AEEGHG, while AEECO₂ is lower than AEEGHG, indicating that only considering a single emission will result in an inefficient outcome. (3) With significant regional heterogeneity, AEEGHG is higher in Henan, Beijing, and Tianjin, while it is the lowest in Hebei. Specific suggestions are proposed to promote sustainable agricultural development. This study presents a novel perspective for comprehensively assessing AEE and offers scientific evidences for agricultural policy formulation to promote climate mitigation.