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Environmental Citizenship (EC) is a promising aim for science education. EC enables people not only to responsibly make decisions on sustainability issues—such as use of renewable energy sources—but also to take action individually and collectively. However, studies show that education for EC is challenging. Because our understanding of EC practice remains limited, an in-depth, qualitative view would help us better understand how to support science teachers during EC education. This study aims to describe current EC education practices. What do secondary science teachers think sustainability and citizenship entail? What are their experiences (both positive and negative) with education for EC? A total of 41 Dutch science teachers were interviewed in an individual, face-to-face setting. Analysis of the coded transcripts shows that most teachers see the added value of EC but struggle to fully implement it in their teaching. They think the curriculum is unsuitable to reach EC, and they see activities such as guiding discussions and opinion forming as challenging. Furthermore, science teachers’ interpretation of citizenship education remains narrow, thus making it unlikely that their lessons are successful in fostering EC. Improving EC education therefore may be supported by explicit representation in the curriculum and teacher professional development directed at its implementation.
Michiel van Harskamp; Marie-Christine Knippels; Wouter van Joolingen. Secondary Science Teachers’ Views on Environmental Citizenship in The Netherlands. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7963 .
AMA StyleMichiel van Harskamp, Marie-Christine Knippels, Wouter van Joolingen. Secondary Science Teachers’ Views on Environmental Citizenship in The Netherlands. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (14):7963.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMichiel van Harskamp; Marie-Christine Knippels; Wouter van Joolingen. 2021. "Secondary Science Teachers’ Views on Environmental Citizenship in The Netherlands." Sustainability 13, no. 14: 7963.
Systems thinking is the ability to reason about biological systems in terms of their characteristics and can assist students in developing a coherent understanding of biology. Literature reports about several recommendations regarding teaching systems thinking, while it seems that systems thinking has not reached classroom practice. The main aim of this study was to identify design guidelines to implement systems thinking in upper-secondary biologyeducation. Based on the recommendations of literature and experience a teacher team developed, tested and evaluated two lessons in two upper-secondary biology classes (15–16 years old students, n = 26, n = 19) using Lesson Study. Lesson one focused on the application of seven system characteristics: boundary, components, interactions, input & output, feedback, dynamics, and hierarchy. Lesson two focused on the improvement of students’ understanding of the characteristics feedback and dynamics by using a qualitative modelling approach. Based on classroom observations, student products and interviews, the results suggest that a first step is made: most students are able to name and apply the seven characteristics. It seems important to pay attention to the: (1) introduction of the seven characteristics; (2) application of the characteristics in a wide variety of contexts; (3) individual characteristics; (4) explicit use of system language.
Melde G. R. Gilissen; Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Bringing systems thinking into the classroom. International Journal of Science Education 2020, 42, 1253 -1280.
AMA StyleMelde G. R. Gilissen, Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels, Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Bringing systems thinking into the classroom. International Journal of Science Education. 2020; 42 (8):1253-1280.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMelde G. R. Gilissen; Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. 2020. "Bringing systems thinking into the classroom." International Journal of Science Education 42, no. 8: 1253-1280.
In this paper, we present an escape box as a means to introduce the escape room concept into classrooms. Recreational escape rooms have inspired teachers all over the world to adapt the popular entertainment activity for education. Escape rooms are problem‐based and time‐constrained, requiring active and collaborative participants, a setting that teachers want to achieve in their classroom to promote learning. This paper explores the adaptation of the escape room concept into educational escape game boxes. These technology‐enhanced escape boxes have become hybrid learning spaces, merging individual and collaborative learning, as well as physical and digital spaces. The design of the box with assignments on each side puts users face to face with each other and requires them to collaborate in the physical world, instead of being individually absorbed in a digital world. The developed box is a unique concept in the field of escape rooms; the content is adaptable. This paper describes the process leading to the design criteria, the design process, test results and evaluation, and provides recommendations for designing educational escape rooms.
Alice Veldkamp; Joke Daemen; Stijn Teekens; Stefan Koelewijn; Marie‐Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Escape boxes: Bringing escape room experience into the classroom. British Journal of Educational Technology 2020, 51, 1220 -1239.
AMA StyleAlice Veldkamp, Joke Daemen, Stijn Teekens, Stefan Koelewijn, Marie‐Christine P. J. Knippels, Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Escape boxes: Bringing escape room experience into the classroom. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2020; 51 (4):1220-1239.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlice Veldkamp; Joke Daemen; Stijn Teekens; Stefan Koelewijn; Marie‐Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. 2020. "Escape boxes: Bringing escape room experience into the classroom." British Journal of Educational Technology 51, no. 4: 1220-1239.
The global increase of recreational escape rooms has inspired teachers around the world to implement escape rooms in educational settings. As escape rooms are increasingly popular in education, there is a need to evaluate their use, and a need for guidelines in order to develop and implement escape rooms in the classroom. This systematic review synthesizes current practices and experiences, focussing on important educational and game design aspects. Subsequently, relations between the game design aspects and the educational aspects are studied. Finally, student outcomes are related to the intended goals. In different disciplines, educators appear to have different motives to use aspects such as time constraints or teamwork. These educators make different choices for related game aspects such as the structuring of the puzzles. Other educators base their choices on common practices in recreational escape rooms. However, in educational escape rooms players need to reach the game goal by achieving the educational goals. More alignment in game mechanics and pedagogical approaches are recommended. These and more results lead to recommendations for developing and implementing escape rooms in education, and will help educators creating these new learning environments, and eventually help students’ foster knowledge and skills more effectively.
Alice Veldkamp; Liesbeth Van De Grint; Marie-Christine Knippels; Wouter Van Joolingen. Escape Education: A Systematic Review on Escape Rooms in Education. 2020, 1 .
AMA StyleAlice Veldkamp, Liesbeth Van De Grint, Marie-Christine Knippels, Wouter Van Joolingen. Escape Education: A Systematic Review on Escape Rooms in Education. . 2020; ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlice Veldkamp; Liesbeth Van De Grint; Marie-Christine Knippels; Wouter Van Joolingen. 2020. "Escape Education: A Systematic Review on Escape Rooms in Education." , no. : 1.
Systems thinking, the ability to reason about systems in abstract terms, fosters students’ coherent understanding of biology. This study aimed to determine to what extent the integration of systems thinking in Dutch biology education is in line with perspectives from systems theories and experts. We related the perspective on systems thinking of systems biologists (n = 7) to those of biology teachers (n = 8) and educators (n = 9). The resulting perspectives were interpreted in terms of three systems theories, General Systems Theories (GST), Cybernetics and Dynamical Systems Theories (DST). Thirdly, we determined to what extent and how teachers and educators pay attention to systems thinking in their teaching practice. This was all done by the use of open-ended interviews and online questionnaires. The results show that the systems biologists and teacher educators involved implicitly refer to three systems theories, whereas the teachers refer to the GST and cybernetics only. Despite this, the results suggest that the implementation of systems thinking in Dutch pre-service teacher training and secondary biology education falls short of expectations. These outcomes underline the importance of teacher (educator) professional development on teaching systems thinking to bridge the gap between research and teaching practice.
Melde G.R. Gilissen; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Roald P. Verhoeff; Wouter R. van Joolingen. Teachers’ and educators’ perspectives on systems thinking and its implementation in Dutch biology education. Journal of Biological Education 2019, 54, 485 -496.
AMA StyleMelde G.R. Gilissen, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Roald P. Verhoeff, Wouter R. van Joolingen. Teachers’ and educators’ perspectives on systems thinking and its implementation in Dutch biology education. Journal of Biological Education. 2019; 54 (5):485-496.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMelde G.R. Gilissen; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Roald P. Verhoeff; Wouter R. van Joolingen. 2019. "Teachers’ and educators’ perspectives on systems thinking and its implementation in Dutch biology education." Journal of Biological Education 54, no. 5: 485-496.
Models are very important tools when learning and communicating about science. Models used in secondary school biology education range from concrete scale models, such as a model of a skeleton, to abstract concept-process models, such as a visualisation of meiosis. Understanding these concept-process models requires a profound understanding of the concept of models and how they are used in biology. This study evaluates the framework from [Grünkorn, J., Upmeier zu Belzen, A., & Krüger, D. (2014). Assessing students’ understandings of biological models and their use in science to evaluate a theoretical framework. International Journal of Science Education, 36, 1651–1684. doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.873155] for its use in assessing students’ understanding of biological concept-process models. Four additions were required to extend the applicability of the framework to concept-process models. We were also able to give an indication of students’ current level of understanding of these models, showing room for improvement in all aspects of understanding. Since concept-process models have a central place in many scientific disciplines, it is important that students have a deep understanding of the nature, application and limitations of these models. The current study contributes to assessing the way students reason with concept-process models. Knowing how to improve students’ view on the use of concept-process models in biology may lead to higher scientific literacy.
Susanne Jansen; Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Assessing students’ understanding of models of biological processes: a revised framework. International Journal of Science Education 2019, 41, 981 -994.
AMA StyleSusanne Jansen, Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels, Wouter R. Van Joolingen. Assessing students’ understanding of models of biological processes: a revised framework. International Journal of Science Education. 2019; 41 (8):981-994.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSusanne Jansen; Marie-Christine P. J. Knippels; Wouter R. Van Joolingen. 2019. "Assessing students’ understanding of models of biological processes: a revised framework." International Journal of Science Education 41, no. 8: 981-994.
Heredity is a biological phenomenon that manifests itself on different levels of biological organization. The yo-yo learning and teaching strategy, which draws on the hierarchy of life, has been developed to tackle the macro-micro problem and to foster coherent understanding of genetic phenomena. Its wider applicability was suggested and since then yo-yo learning seems to be noticed in the biology education research community. The aim of this paper is to reappraise yo-yo thinking in biology education research based on its uptake and any well-considered adaptations by other researchers in the past fifteen years. Based on a literature search we identified research that explicitly and substantially build on the characteristics of yo-yo thinking. Seven questions guided the analysis of chosen cases focussing on how key concepts are matched to levels of biological organization, interrelated, and embedded in a pattern of explanatory reasoning. The analysis revealed that yo-yo thinking as a heuristic of systems thinking has been an inspiring idea to promote coherent conceptual understanding of various biological phenomena. Although, selective use has been made of the yo-yo strategy, the strategy was also further elaborated to include the molecular level. Its functioning as a meta-cognitive tool requires more specification, and teachers’ perceptions and experiences regarding yo-yo thinking should be addressed in future studies.
Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo. Development, Uptake, and Wider Applicability of the Yo-yo Strategy in Biology Education Research: A Reappraisal. Education Sciences 2018, 8, 129 .
AMA StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Arend Jan Waarlo. Development, Uptake, and Wider Applicability of the Yo-yo Strategy in Biology Education Research: A Reappraisal. Education Sciences. 2018; 8 (3):129.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo. 2018. "Development, Uptake, and Wider Applicability of the Yo-yo Strategy in Biology Education Research: A Reappraisal." Education Sciences 8, no. 3: 129.
Systems thinking has become synonymous to developing coherent understanding of complex biological processes and phenomena from the molecular level to the level of ecosystems. The importance of systems and systems models in science education has been widely recognized, as illustrated by its definition as crosscutting concept by the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013). However, there still seems no consensus on what systems thinking exactly implies or how it can be fostered by adequate learning and teaching strategies. This paper stresses the theoretical or abstract nature of systems thinking. Systems thinking is not just perceived here as “coherent understanding,” but as a learning strategy in which systems theoretical concepts are deliberately used to explain and predict natural phenomena. As such, we argue that systems thinking is not to be defined as a set of skills, that can be learned “one by one,” but instead asks for consideration of systems characteristics and the systems theories they are derived from. After a short elaboration of the conceptual nature of systems thinking, we portray the diversity of educational approaches to foster systems thinking that have been reported in the empirical literature. Our frame of analysis focuses on the extent to which attention has been given to the matching of natural phenomena to one of three systems theories, the integration of different systems thinking skills and the role of modeling. Subsequently, we discuss the epistemological nature of the systems concept and we present some conclusions on embedding systems thinking in the secondary biology curriculum.
Roald P. Verhoeff; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Melde G. R. Gilissen; Kerst T. Boersma. The Theoretical Nature of Systems Thinking. Perspectives on Systems Thinking in Biology Education. Frontiers in Education 2018, 3, 1 .
AMA StyleRoald P. Verhoeff, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Melde G. R. Gilissen, Kerst T. Boersma. The Theoretical Nature of Systems Thinking. Perspectives on Systems Thinking in Biology Education. Frontiers in Education. 2018; 3 ():1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoald P. Verhoeff; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Melde G. R. Gilissen; Kerst T. Boersma. 2018. "The Theoretical Nature of Systems Thinking. Perspectives on Systems Thinking in Biology Education." Frontiers in Education 3, no. : 1.
The PARRISE (Promoting Attainment of Responsible Research & Innovation in Science Education) project aims at introducing the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation in primary and secondary education. It does so by combining inquiry-based learning and citizenship education with socio-scientific issues in science education. This approach is called socio-scientific inquiry-based learning (SSIBL) which is implemented in teacher professional development courses across Europe. Based on practical experiences the approach is laid down in a new educational framework, and learning tools and materials for in/pre-service training courses are developed. The PARRISE educational methodology seeks to promote democratic citizenship through the integration of social issues and related scientific knowledge. Drawing from recently acquired IBSE insights and individual partner expertise, the PARRISE partners collectively develop a community of learners, who will bring together selected good practices examined from a Research and Responsible Innovation perspective.
Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Frans Van Dam. PARRISE, Promoting Attainment of Responsible Research and Innovation in Science Education, FP7. Impact 2017, 2017, 52 -54.
AMA StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Frans Van Dam. PARRISE, Promoting Attainment of Responsible Research and Innovation in Science Education, FP7. Impact. 2017; 2017 (5):52-54.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Frans Van Dam. 2017. "PARRISE, Promoting Attainment of Responsible Research and Innovation in Science Education, FP7." Impact 2017, no. 5: 52-54.
In many science education practices, students are expected to develop an understanding of scientific knowledge without being allowed a view of the practices and cultures that have developed and use this knowledge. Therefore, students should be allowed to develop scientific concepts in relation to the contexts in which those concepts are used. Since many concepts are used in a variety of contexts, students need to be able to recontextualise and transfer their understanding of a concept from one context to another. This study aims to develop a learning and teaching strategy for recontextualising cellular respiration. This article focuses on students’ ability to recontextualise cellular respiration. The strategy allowed students to develop their understanding of cellular respiration by exploring its use and meaning in different contexts. A pre- and post-test design was used to test students’ understanding of cellular respiration. The results indicate that while students did develop an acceptable understanding of cellular respiration, they still had difficulty with recontextualising the concept to other contexts. Possible explanations for this ack of understanding are students’ familiarity with the biological object of focus in a context, the manner in which this object is used in a context and students’ understanding of specific elements of cellular respiration during the lessons. Although students did develop an adequate understanding of the concept, they do need more opportunities to practice recontextualising the concept in different contexts. Further research should focus on improving the strategy presented here and developing strategies for other core concepts in science
Menno Wierdsma; Kerst Th. Boersma; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Bert Van Oers. Developing the ability to recontextualise cellular respiration: an explorative study in recontextualising biological concepts. International Journal of Science Education 2016, 38, 2388 -2413.
AMA StyleMenno Wierdsma, Kerst Th. Boersma, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Bert Van Oers. Developing the ability to recontextualise cellular respiration: an explorative study in recontextualising biological concepts. International Journal of Science Education. 2016; 38 (15):2388-2413.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMenno Wierdsma; Kerst Th. Boersma; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Bert Van Oers. 2016. "Developing the ability to recontextualise cellular respiration: an explorative study in recontextualising biological concepts." International Journal of Science Education 38, no. 15: 2388-2413.
Since concepts may have different meanings in different contexts, students have to learn to recontextualise them, i.e. to adapt their meanings to a new context. It is unclear, however, what characteristics a learning and teaching strategy for recontextualising should have. The study aims to develop such a learning and teaching strategy for cellular respiration. The strategy consists of a storyline, consisting of three contexts, with embedded cognitive elements and some episodes focussed on recontextualising cellular respiration. Testing the strategy in two classes in upper secondary biology education showed that the strategy was largely practicable.
Menno Wierdsma; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Bert Van Oers; Kerst Boersma. Recontextualising Cellular Respiration in Upper Secondary Biology Education. Characteristics and Practicability of a Learning and Teaching Strategy. Journal of Biological Education 2015, 50, 239 -250.
AMA StyleMenno Wierdsma, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Bert Van Oers, Kerst Boersma. Recontextualising Cellular Respiration in Upper Secondary Biology Education. Characteristics and Practicability of a Learning and Teaching Strategy. Journal of Biological Education. 2015; 50 (3):239-250.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMenno Wierdsma; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Bert Van Oers; Kerst Boersma. 2015. "Recontextualising Cellular Respiration in Upper Secondary Biology Education. Characteristics and Practicability of a Learning and Teaching Strategy." Journal of Biological Education 50, no. 3: 239-250.
Presymptomatic genetic testing generates socioscientific issues in which decision making is complicated by several complexity factors.These factors include weighing of advantages and disadvantages, different interests of stakeholders, uncertainty of genetic information and conflicting values. Education preparing students for future decision making should address these factors. A research strategy is tested in which short video assisted cases are selected to illustrate the different perspectives on the issue of presymptomatic genetic testing in elite sport and the factors that make decision making complex. The cases contain narratives of real life situations in elite sport. After each case, students note their position and formulate arguments and questions. The strategy was tested in seven classes of pre-university education. Research shows that the strategy is effective in inviting students to consider different perspectives and to generate arguments and questions that cover the issue in a classroom discussion. The strategy requires little time and teacher preparation.
Dirk Jan Boerwinkel; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo. Raising awareness of pre-symptomatic genetic testing. Journal of Biological Education 2011, 45, 213 -221.
AMA StyleDirk Jan Boerwinkel, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Arend Jan Waarlo. Raising awareness of pre-symptomatic genetic testing. Journal of Biological Education. 2011; 45 (4):213-221.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDirk Jan Boerwinkel; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo. 2011. "Raising awareness of pre-symptomatic genetic testing." Journal of Biological Education 45, no. 4: 213-221.
The present study examined the outcomes of a newly designed four‐lesson science module on opinion‐forming in the context of genomics in upper secondary education. The lesson plan aims to foster 16‐year‐old students’ opinion‐forming skills in the context of genomics and to test the effect of the use of fiction in the module. The basic hypothesis tested in this study is whether fiction stimulates students to develop opinions with regard to socio‐scientific issues. A quasi‐experimental pre‐test and post‐test design was used, involving two treatment groups and one control group. One of the experimental groups received a science module incorporating movie clips (i.e., the movie group). The other experimental group received the same science module, but only news report clips were used (i.e., the news report group). Prior to and after the module, 266 secondary school students completed a questionnaire to test their opinion‐forming skills. The results demonstrate that the science module had a significant positive effect on students’ opinion‐forming skills and that the movie group improved their skills more compared with the news report group. It may be concluded that the use of fiction—to be more specific, movie clips about genomics extracted from feature films—to introduce a socio‐scientific issue in the classroom stimulates students to develop their opinion‐forming skills.
Marie‐Christine P. J. Knippels; Sabine E. Severiens; Tanja Klop. Education through Fiction: Acquiring opinion‐forming skills in the context of genomics. International Journal of Science Education 2009, 31, 2057 -2083.
AMA StyleMarie‐Christine P. J. Knippels, Sabine E. Severiens, Tanja Klop. Education through Fiction: Acquiring opinion‐forming skills in the context of genomics. International Journal of Science Education. 2009; 31 (15):2057-2083.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarie‐Christine P. J. Knippels; Sabine E. Severiens; Tanja Klop. 2009. "Education through Fiction: Acquiring opinion‐forming skills in the context of genomics." International Journal of Science Education 31, no. 15: 2057-2083.
This article evaluated the impact of a four‐lesson science module on the attitudes of secondary school students. This science module (on cancer and modern biotechnology) utilises several design principles, related to a social constructivist perspective on learning. The expectation was that the module would help students become more articulate in this particular field. In a quasi‐experimental design (experimental‐, control groups, and pre‐ and post‐tests), secondary school students’ attitudes (N = 365) towards modern biotechnology were measured by a questionnaire. Data were analysed using Chi‐square tests. Significant differences were obtained between the control and experimental conditions. Results showed that the science module had a significant effect on attitudes, although predominantly towards a more supportive and not towards a more critical stance. It is discussed that offering a science module of this kind can indeed encourage students to become more aware of modern biotechnology, although promoting a more critical attitude towards modern biotechnology should receive more attention.
Tanja Klop; Sabine E. Severiens; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Marc H. W. Van Mil; Geert T. M. Ten Dam. Effects of a Science Education Module on Attitudes towards Modern Biotechnology of Secondary School Students. International Journal of Science Education 2009, 32, 1127 -1150.
AMA StyleTanja Klop, Sabine E. Severiens, Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Marc H. W. Van Mil, Geert T. M. Ten Dam. Effects of a Science Education Module on Attitudes towards Modern Biotechnology of Secondary School Students. International Journal of Science Education. 2009; 32 (9):1127-1150.
Chicago/Turabian StyleTanja Klop; Sabine E. Severiens; Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Marc H. W. Van Mil; Geert T. M. Ten Dam. 2009. "Effects of a Science Education Module on Attitudes towards Modern Biotechnology of Secondary School Students." International Journal of Science Education 32, no. 9: 1127-1150.
While learning and teaching difficulties in genetics have been abundantly explored and described, there has been less focus on the development and field-testing of strategies to address them. To inform the design of such a strategy a review study, focus group interviews with teachers, a case study of a traditional series of genetics lessons, student interviews, and content analysis of school genetics teaching were carried out. Specific difficulties reported in the literature were comparable to those perceived by Dutch teachers and found in the case study and the student interviews.The problems associated with the abstract and complex nature of genetics were studied in more detail. The separation of inheritance, reproduction and meiosis in the curriculum accounts for the abstract nature of genetics, while the different levels of biological organisation contribute to its complex nature. Finally, four design criteria are defined for a learning and teaching strategy to address these problems: linking the levels of organism, cell and molecule; explicitly connecting meiosis and inheritance; distinguishing the somatic and germ cell line in the context of the life cycle; and an active exploration of the relations between the levels of organisation by the students.
Marie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo; Kerst Th Boersma. Design criteria for learning and teaching genetics. Journal of Biological Education 2005, 39, 108 -112.
AMA StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels, Arend Jan Waarlo, Kerst Th Boersma. Design criteria for learning and teaching genetics. Journal of Biological Education. 2005; 39 (3):108-112.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarie-Christine P.J. Knippels; Arend Jan Waarlo; Kerst Th Boersma. 2005. "Design criteria for learning and teaching genetics." Journal of Biological Education 39, no. 3: 108-112.