Plant-based milk alternatives (PBMA) have emerged as popular substitutes for cow milk, driven by health, environmental, and ethical considerations. However, their ability to replicate the sensory and physicochemical properties of dairy remains a critical challenge for industry. This review critically examines the extent to which almond, soy, and oat PBMA replicate key sensory attributes of ultra-high temperature (UHT) full cream cow milk, focusing on appearance, texture, and flavour. Furthermore, it explores the relationship between these sensory attributes and the physicochemical properties of PBMA to elucidate the underlying reasons for the observed differences. A comparative analysis of compositional differences reveals fundamental limitations linked to plant protein functionality, carbohydrate structure, fat composition, and mineral fortification, all of which contribute to disparities in creaminess, mouthfeel, colour, and flavour. Technological strategies such as particle size reduction, enzymatic hydrolysis, and flavour masking have improved specific attributes, yet no PBMA fully replicates the holistic sensory experience of dairy. Emerging approaches, including blended formulations, precision fermentation, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven optimisation, show promise in narrowing these gaps. Nonetheless, a complete replication of UHT cow milk remains elusive, highlighting the need for continued research and innovation to either approximate dairy properties more closely or enhance PBMA’s unique qualities to drive consumer acceptance.

Lactoferrin (LF) is one of the minor milk proteins that has been gaining attention for its beneficial physiological functions to human health, as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-viral and bone growth agent. These characteristics are partly attributed to its ability to bind iron, which results in regulating the sequestration and release of iron in the body and partly due to its ability to interact with the molecular and cellular components of pathogens and their hosts. For this reason, LF is marketed as a functional component in various types of products, including infant formula, and in tablets or other types of supplements for children and adults. Bovine LF (BLF) is the main commercial protein ingredient from large-scale extraction using various technologies. The use of cationic exchange chromatography is the most common technology, and allows BLF to be extracted with around 95% purity and 87–93% of the isolated protein. Due to its characteristics and its various health benefits, BLF has also been studied as an additional component in new therapeutic applications in serious diseases such as upper and lower respiratory tract infections and COVID-19, cancers, for use in dermatology and regenerative medicinal engineering.

Milk is a globally important food valued for its nutritional content and accessibility, with extended-shelf-life products such as ultra-high-temperature (UHT) milk increasing market reach but often altering flavour and impacting consumer acceptance. Despite the central role of aroma in determining flavour, analytical approaches in dairy research are frequently applied in isolation, limiting mechanistic insight into how processing-driven changes in volatile compounds influence sensory perception. This review critically examines analytical strategies for characterising aroma in bovine drinking milk, with emphasis on sample preparation, volatile extraction, chromatographic profiling, and sensory methodologies. Across the literature, inconsistent experimental design, limited consideration of aroma-active compounds, and the separation of chemical and sensory analyses emerge as key constraints. Evidence indicates that no single analytical approach is universally optimal, with method performance dependent on matrix composition and analytical objectives; however, multidimensional chromatography and integrated sensory–instrumental approaches provide clear advantages for resolving complex flavour systems. This review highlights the need for standardised, matrix-appropriate methodologies and demonstrates that improved integration of chemical and sensory data is essential for advancing mechanistic, consumer-relevant flavour characterisation in milk.