African swine fever remains an important pig disease globally in view of its rapid spread, economic impacts and food implications, with no option of vaccination or treatment. The Southern Highlands zone of Tanzania, an important pig-producing hub in East Africa, is endemic with African swine fever (ASF). From approximately the year 2010, the recurrence of outbreaks has been observed and it has now become a predictable pattern. We conducted exploratory participatory epidemiology and participatory disease surveillance in the Southern Highlands to understand the pig sector and the drivers and facilitators of infections, risk factors and dynamics of ASF in this important pig-producing area. Pigs continue to play a major role in rural livelihoods in the Southern Highlands and pork is a major animal protein source. Outbreaks of diseases, particularly ASF, have continued to militate against the scaling up of pig operations in the Southern Highlands. Intra- and inter-district and trans-border transnational outbreaks of ASF, the most common disease in the Southern Highlands, continue to occur. Trade and marketing systems, management systems, and lack of biosecurity, as well as anthropogenic (human) issues, animals and fomites, were identified as risk factors and facilitators of ASF infection. Changes in human behavior and communication in trade and marketing systems in the value chain, biosecurity and pig management practices are warranted. Relevant training must be implemented alongside the launch of the national ASF control strategy for Tanzania, which already established a roadmap for combating ASF in Tanzania. The high-risk points (slaughter slabs, border areas, and farms with poor biosecurity) and high-risk period (November–March) along the pig value chain must be targeted as critical control points for interventions in order to reduce the burden of infection.

Approximately 1500 people die annually due to rabies in the United Republic of Tanzania. Moshi, in the Kilimanjaro Region, reported sporadic cases of human rabies between 2017 and 2018. In response and following a One Health approach, we implemented surveillance, monitoring, as well as a mass vaccinations of domestic pets concurrently in >150 villages, achieving a 74.5% vaccination coverage (n = 29, 885 dogs and cats) by September 2018. As of April 2019, no single human or animal case has been recorded. We have observed a disparity between awareness and knowledge levels of community members on rabies epidemiology. Self-adherence to protective rabies vaccination in animals was poor due to the challenges of costs and distances to vaccination centers, among others. Incidence of dog bites was high and only a fraction (65%) of dog bite victims (humans) received post-exposure prophylaxis. A high proportion of unvaccinated dogs and cats and the relative intense interactions with wild dog species at interfaces were the risk factors for seropositivity to rabies virus infection in dogs. A percentage of the previously vaccinated dogs remained unimmunized and some unvaccinated dogs were seropositive. Evidence of community engagement and multi-coordinated implementation of One Health in Moshi serves as an example of best practice in tackling zoonotic diseases using multi-level government efforts. The district-level establishment of the One Health rapid response team (OHRRT), implementation of a carefully structured routine vaccination campaign, improved health education, and the implementation of barriers between domestic animals and wildlife at the interfaces are necessary to reduce the burden of rabies in Moshi and communities with similar profiles.

African swine fever (ASF) has remained persistent in Tanzania since the early 2000s. Between 2020 and 2021, pig farms in twelve districts in Tanzania were infected with ASF, and ≥4,804 pigs reportedly died directly due to the disease with disruption to livelihoods. We conducted semiquantitative field investigations and rapid risk assessment (RRA) to understand the risk factors and drivers of ASF virus (ASFV) amplification and transmission in smallholder pig farms, and determine the gaps in biosecurity through hazard profiling, focus group discussions and expert opinion. Outbreaks were connected by road and aligned along the pig product value chain and reported in the northern, central, and southern parts of Tanzania. The patterns of outbreaks and impacts differed among districts, but cases of ASF appeared to be self‐limiting following significant mortality of pigs in farms. Movement of infected pigs, movement of contaminated pig products, and fomites associated with service providers, vehicles, and equipment, as well as the inadvertent risks associated with movements of animal health practitioners, visitors, and scavengers were the riskiest pathways to introduce ASFV into smallholder pig farms. Identified drivers and facilitators of risk of ASFV infection in smallholder pig farms were traders in whole pigs, middlemen, pig farmers, transporters, unauthorized animal health service providers, and traders in pork. All identified pig groups were susceptible to ASFV, particularly shared adult boars, pregnant and lactating sows, and other adult females. The risk of ASF for smallholder pig farms in Tanzania remains very high based on a systematic risk classification. The majority of the farms had poor biosecurity and no single farm implemented all identified biosecurity measures. Risky practices and breaches of biosecurity in the pig value chain in Tanzania are profit driven and are extremely difficult to change. Behavioural change communication must target identified drivers of infections, attitudes, and practices.

Background: Zambia, like many low- and middle-income countries, faces a growing burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), driven by the misuse of antimicrobials in both human and animal health, a limited diagnostic capacity, and weak regulatory enforcement. To address this challenge, Standard Treatment Guidelines (STGs) were developed for the veterinary sector, which represents a major milestone in the country’s AMR containment strategy. STGs are evidence-based protocols that guide veterinary professionals in consistently and appropriately diagnosing and treating animal diseases. They promote the rational use of veterinary medicines, and can mitigate AMR and improve animal health outcomes. By translating the best evidence into best practices, STGs also provide a practical foundation for antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) programs. Until 2023, Zambia lacked nationally adopted STGs for the veterinary sector. The introduction and standardization of these guidelines are expected to promote prudent antimicrobial use and raise the standard of care delivered to animal patients across the country. Objective: The aim of this paper is to provide a practical reference for future revisions of STGs and outline the successful methodology used to create STGs in the Zambian animal sector. Methods: A situational analysis was conducted to identify priority animal health conditions and existing treatment gaps within the veterinary sector. A multidisciplinary expert committee was then formed, comprising veterinarians, veterinary paraprofessionals, academics, regulatory authorities, and private sector stakeholders, to lead the development of the STGs. The process was guided by the WHO methodology for developing treatment guidelines, including a comprehensive review of the clinical evidence, local disease patterns, antimicrobial resistance data, and existing treatment practices. Draft STGs were developed with clearly defined, species-specific treatment protocols tailored to the Zambian context. For the validation process, the AGREE II instrument was used to assess the quality, clarity, and applicability of the guidelines. Structured stakeholder consultations with practitioners, policy-makers, and technical experts were held to ensure that the guidelines were practical, evidence-based, and aligned with national priorities. The validated drafts were then disseminated and piloted in selected districts. Conclusions: The development of the species-specific STGs represents an essential turning point in the country’s efforts to promote responsible veterinary care and contain AMR. STGs have become a prominent key support in the delivery of quality animal care. Further, the guidelines will assist in the optimization of antimicrobial use in animal health in Zambia.

Aquaculture in Zambia is rapidly growing, contributing significantly to food security and income generation. However, the intensification of fish farming raises concerns about antimicrobial use (AMU) and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This study assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of fish farmers regarding AMU and AMR across 25 districts in Zambia’s ten provinces. Data were collected from fish farmers using a structured questionnaire distributed via district fisheries officers and analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics, including logistic regression. The results revealed significant gaps in knowledge, with only 17.4% of farmers classified as knowledgeable about AMU and AMR. Attitude assessments showed that 60.5% exhibited positive attitudes toward responsible AMU practices, while the remaining 39.5% displayed negative perceptions. In terms of practices, 76.5% adhered to good practices, including consulting veterinary professionals and responsible antibiotic use, whereas 23.5% engaged in poor practices. Key factors influencing KAP outcomes included age, farming experience, and annual production capacity. Farmers aged 30–39 years and those with 1–5 years of experience demonstrated significantly more positive attitudes (p < 0.05), while those with higher production capacities (501–1000 kg) exhibited better practices (p < 0.001). The findings highlight critical knowledge gaps and inconsistent practices regarding AMU and AMR among Zambian fish farmers. Targeted interventions, including education programs, enhanced access to veterinary services, and strengthened regulatory frameworks, are essential to promote responsible AMU, mitigate AMR risks, and ensure the sustainability of aquaculture in Zambia.

Aquaculture is a rapidly expanding sector that plays a critical role in global food security. However, intensive fish farming practices can lead to increased bacterial infections and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This study investigated microbial profiles, antibiotic susceptibility, and antibiotic residues in market-ready Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from key aquaculture production regions in Zambia. A total of 118 fish samples were collected from small-, medium-, and large-scale farms in Kafue and Siavonga districts, covering both cage and pond culture systems. Bacterial isolates were identified using selective media, biochemical tests, and molecular methods. The antibiotic susceptibility of Vibrio spp., Lactococcus garvieae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Aeromonas spp. was determined using the disk diffusion method. Residue analysis was conducted using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The results revealed significant bacterial contamination, with E. coli detected in 6.78% of samples, Salmonella spp. in 17.8%, and Aeromonas spp. in 3.39% in large-scale commercial operations. Vibrio spp. prevalence was highest in pond culture at 22.88%, while L. garvieae was most prevalent in large-scale pond farms at 10.17%. Antibiotic resistance was widespread, with 100% resistance to ampicillin in E. coli across all farm scales and 100% resistance to imipenem and erythromycin in L. garvieae from cage culture. Minimal antibiotic residues were detected, except for a single instance of penicillin residue in small-scale cage culture. These findings underscore the need for enhanced biosecurity measures, and robust monitoring systems to mitigate AMR risks and ensure food safety in Zambia’s aquaculture industry.