Ecosystem services (ESs) support human well-being, but their integrated assessment in urban green spaces remains challenging, particularly at the project scale, where finer spatial resolution (tens of meters) is required. Historical parks are complex socio-ecological systems with non-linear ES interactions. This study develops a design-oriented framework to assess how restoration interventions influence regulation, maintenance, and cultural ES potential provision. Indicators derived from field surveys and established models were selected according to CICES V5.2 and adapted to ecological and cultural features of historical parks. Survey units were defined for each ES section to enable a spatially explicit comparison between current and design scenarios. A normalized scoring system was applied to evaluate category-level changes and overall interaction patterns. The framework was tested on the restoration project of Monza Park (northern Italy). Results show a marked increase in cultural and regulation services (+28% and +17%, respectively), while maintenance services exhibited a slight decrease (−3%). These trends are reflected in the Cumulative Indicator Score (CIS), indicating an overall positive balance of ES provision in the design scenario. The Design Effectiveness Score (DES) showed consistently non-negative values (DES ≥ 0), reaching maximum effectiveness in transitions to woody vegetation (DES ≈ 1). The Synergy–Trade-off Score (STS) confirmed a general increase in ES supply across all categories, with a clear prevalence of synergies over trade-offs. The proposed framework supports the data-driven, spatially explicit evaluation of design alternatives and can guide decision-making in historical park restoration.

Non-urbanized areas (NUAs), including residual urban green areas, urban parks, agricultural, natural and semi-natural areas, are a fundamental part of the green infrastructure. They are essential in sustaining life and future development, providing a series of ecosystem services (ESs) vital to human society. However, the rapid expansion of urban areas has led to a significant reduction in green spaces. Land-take, reducing available land resources, impacts ecosystem functionality, making it crucial to preserve high-quality territories and the relative ESs provided. In this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate the reduction in ESs due to the land-take having occurred in the last 20 years in the Province of Monza–Brianza, the Italian province with the highest land-take. To achieve this goal, authors used the official data of land use/cover of the Lombardy Region, with three time thresholds (T0: 1999–2003, T1: 2012–2013, T2: 2021) and applied a methodology for ESs assessment originally developed for the municipal level, adapting it to the provincial scale. The study analyzes trends in land-take and land-use changes and assesses how these changes have led to variations in ES provision. The approach involves calculating multiple indices reflecting different ESs provided by NUAs: provisioning ESs coming from agriculture, regulating ESs provided by natural resources, cultural ESs provided by landscape. Findings reveal that urban expansion has decreased provisioning ESs coming from agriculture, while ESs provided by landscape and natural resources have remained stable or improved, respectively. The natural quality index has improved due to conservation policies, despite the high land-take recorded. Anyway, although regional policies have mitigated some negative effects, the overall reduction in green spaces remains a critical issue.

Employee wellbeing is increasingly investigated in relation to physical workplace environments, yet assessment approaches remain heterogeneous across disciplines and research contexts. This review examined how employee wellbeing is operationalised and assessed in real-world workplaces and how different types of measurement are used together. A combined bibliometric and systematic review was conducted using Scopus and Web of Science, and the systematic component was reported in accordance with PRISMA 2020. The bibliometric corpus comprised 306 publications, while 19 empirical studies were included in the systematic synthesis. Self-report assessment was used in all included studies (100%), physiological measurements in 36.8%, environmental measurements in 47.4%, and formal cognitive task-based assessment in 5.3%. Ten studies (52.6%) reported more than one type of measurement; nine (47.4%) included at least two types referring to the same employees or an overlapping subgroup during concurrent or explicitly linked periods. Six studies (31.6%) reported at least three types of measurement. Considerable heterogeneity was found in the constructs, instruments, and modality combinations employed. Environmental measures primarily characterised workplace conditions or exposures, whereas physiological indicators captured complementary employee responses rather than direct measures of wellbeing. The findings highlight the need for transparent assessment approaches that distinguish measures of wellbeing from contextual, physiological, environmental, and performance-related measures and clearly report how different modalities are combined.