The EU Biodiversity Strategy (EUBDS) for 2030 aims at regaining biodiversity by strengthening the protection of nature in the European Union. This study models and analyses possible impacts of the EUBDS on the production and trade of forest-based products in the EU and non-EU countries in two alternative scenarios. Implementing EUBDS measures would allow a maximum EU roundwood production of roughly 281 M m³ in 2030 in the intensive and 490 M m³ in the moderate scenario. Since in the reference scenario, the EU roundwood production amounts to 539 M m³ in 2030, this represent a reduction of −48% and −9% in 2030, respectively. Until 2050, the production further decreases and accounts for 42% and 90% of the reference production. Globally, the EU roundwood production deficit is compensated partly (roughly between 50%–60%) by increasing production of roundwood in non-EU countries (e.g., USA, Russia, Canada, China and Brazil) whereas the remaining share of the EU production deficit is no longer produced and consumed worldwide. In the EU, reduced roundwood availability leads to a lower production of wood-based products, although, apparent consumption of wood-based products remains similar. This is mainly caused by significantly lower export volumes of wood-based products and, for some product groups, by significantly increased imports as well. This is partly due to unchanged assumptions regarding income and thus, demand patterns. However, on a global level, decreased production and consumption of wood-based products could lead to a growing use of non-bio-based resources to substitute wood-products. Our study also shows that the magnitude of effects strongly depends on how much the use of forest resources is actually restricted.

In Germany, 24% of the forest area is owned by small-scale private forest owners, whose property is affected by a societal demand for forest-related ecosystem services. In the inhomogeneous group of small-scale private forest owners, different living conditions and lifestyles exist, which are affecting the management of the forest ownership. To support the management activities of small-scale private forest owners, institutional instruments exist, but these are only used by a small proportion of forest owners. In order to gain insights into the accessibility and activation of small-scale private forest owners for management, and to draw conclusions for appropriate support instruments, a large number of studies have analyzed the factors influencing the management activities of forest owners. Some studies identify socio-demographic and socio-economic variables as important influencing factors, but do not take into account their complex interdependencies, which have developed as a result of the pluralization of lifestyles and individualization of forest owners. For this reason, in addition to the influencing factors identified in the literature as relevant for forest management activities of small-scale private forest owners, the lifestyle segmentation approach of Sinus milieus established in German market research was applied in this study. This approach allocates forest owners based on their complex lifestyles into ten different milieu groups. A logistic regression analysis was used to determine the parameters influencing the willingness to engage in eight different forest management activities. The results show that the willingness to engage in forest management activities in the future is higher compared to actions in the past. In addition to timber harvesting-related activities, the small-scale private forest owners show a high action potential for non-commodity-related activities. Non-commodity-related activities can primarily be explained by the Sinus milieu affiliation of the small-scale private forest owners. This result underlines the usefulness of a lifestyle segmentation approach such as the Sinus milieus to address small-scale private forest owners in a target group specific way in line with their willingness to engage in specific forest management activities. Institutional instruments such as the membership in a forest owners association or subsidies do not play a significant role for non-commodity-related activities and seem to be inappropriate for targeting small-scale private forest owners for these activities. Timber harvesting-related activities are primarily influenced by the presence of professional foresters, socio-demographic factors or institutional instruments. Based on these empirical findings, implications can be drawn for the target group-specific addressing of forest owners based on different management activities. In this way, forest owners can be motivated to engage in forest management and the provision of forest-related ecosystem services.

The EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 (EUBDS) aims to preserve and restore biodiversity by protecting large areas in the EU. An extensive part of these protected areas will presumably be covered by forests. This study analyses the economic effects of EUBDS implementation on German forestry in two scenarios, based on different possible interpretations of the EUBDS’ key commitments, using a forest economic simulation model. A special focus is placed on the opportunity costs of coarse wood debris (CWD). Over a simulated 200-year period, a decrease in timber harvest of 13% and 44% is estimated under the respective scenario assumptions. This leads to a reduction in the silvicultural contribution margin (SCM) of on average 0.25 B EUR a⁻¹ (14%) and 0.79 B EUR a⁻¹ (45%). In terms of the total SCM, protected forests contribute 35% and 15% in the two scenarios. The accumulation and preservation of CWD incurs a substantial loss of utility, as 15% and 19% of annual logging is required for conservation purposes. However, the EUBDS may also provide economically tangible benefits. A rational decision would be to implement a scenario if the “net benefit” from the protected status exceeds the losses from set-aside and conservation requirements.

Background: While forests are pivotal for climate change mitigation, robust CO₂ accounting is required to quantify their climate benefits. However, varying current methodologies complicate this process for practitioners. This study addresses the need for a low-threshold, IPCC-compliant CO₂ estimation method of tree biomass in forest stands. Methods: We developed CO₂ yield tables by integrating segmented allometric biomass functions into fourth-generation yield tables, combining empirical data and simulations for Northwest Germany. Above- and belowground biomass was calculated, converted into CO₂, and compared with estimates from traditional expansion factors. An interactive R Shiny dashboard was designed to visualise results. Results: The main results of this article are the carbon yield tables, covering beech (Fagus sylvatica), oak (Quercus spp.), spruce (Picea abies), pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), each across various yield classes and starting at age 1, thereby also encompassing the juvenile phase of forest stands. Our comparison with estimates from traditional expansion factors shows that the latter can substantially overestimate carbon content in forest stands compared to our results, ranging from 20% to 35%, with higher estimates for mature stands and improved representation of early growth. The interactive dashboard also allows readers to experiment with their own figures. Conclusions: The choice of CO₂ methodology profoundly affects results. Our yield tables and a calculation tool (dashboard) deliver a transparent, accessible tool for quantifying forest CO₂ stock, supporting sustainable management and carbon market participation.

The European small-scale private forest is facing major challenges as a result of climate change and increasing societal demands. For evidence-based decision-making e.g., for economic impact assessments, comparable information on the economic situation of small-scale private forest enterprises is of growing importance. So far, however, there are no or only few economic key figures on forest management available for smallscale private forest enterprises (SSPFE) in many EU Member States. Furthermore, the few existing key figures are hardly internationally comparable. Therefore, in a pilot-study within the joint research project "Valorising small-scale forestry for a biobased economy (ValoFor)" comparable key figures on forest management in SSPFE in Germany, Finland, Austria, Sweden and Slovenia were collected for the first time, using a modified "typical enterprise approach". For each country, a typical SSPFE with typical management measures and economic indicators was created through in-depth literature analysis and expert interviews. For example, it was found that in the reference year 2021, the highest timber revenues in typical SSPFE were achieved in Austria (66 €/ m³). This was followed by Germany with 57 €/m³. For the typical enterprises in Finland, Sweden and Slovenia, timber revenues of 41-42 €/m³ were calculated. The "typical forest enterprise" approach, which can be realized with comparatively little effort, can serve as a valuable basis for further forest economic impact assessments for EU policy processes.