Due to widespread industrial applications and increased discharges, concentrations of polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in potential drinking water sources have risen significantly, putting more people at risk of PFAS exposure. This study aimed to systematically clarify the occurrence characteristics (concentrations, detection frequencies, and temporal trends) of PFAS in global potential drinking water sources over the past decade, assess their oral exposure risks, and identify key PFAS species with high detection frequencies, high contamination levels, or high toxicity risks, thereby providing scientific support for the development of targeted control technologies and management strategies. This study systematically searched and reviewed the relevant literature published between 2014 and 2024 on PFAS levels in global potential drinking water sources, extracting data on PFAS concentrations, detection information, and sampling characteristics. Using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Reference Dose (RfD) for oral exposure as the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), we evaluated the exposure risks of eight specific PFAS via the Risk Quotient for Specific Contaminants (RQ_RSC) model and analyzed the annual detection trends of the top thirty PFAS with the highest detection frequencies. Regarding total PFAS contamination, China, Brazil, Germany, South Africa, and the Danube River Basin exhibited particularly high levels, with China being the most severely contaminated. Risk assessment indicated that 45.6% of global potential drinking water sources were at high risk (RQ_RSC > 1), while 48.4% were at low risk (RQ_RSC < 0.2). Among the evaluated PFAS, PFOA, PFOS, PFDA, and GenX were associated with higher toxicity exposure risks. For the identified key concern PFAS, it is necessary to simplify detection techniques, promote targeted large-scale safe treatment technologies, and explore intelligent monitoring tools to reduce regulatory lag, thereby effectively monitoring, preventing, and controlling PFAS contamination.

To clarify the control mechanism of water quality parameters on metal particle release from pipe scales in aging ductile iron water supply pipelines (service life > 20 years), this study conducted single-factor experiments to explore the effects of pH, temperature, concentration of humic acid (HA) and Mn²⁺ on Fe, Mn, and Al particle release. Combined with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) for quantitative detection, first-order/second-order kinetic fitting, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) characterization, the results showed that an increase in temperature generally promoted the aggregation and sedimentation of metal particles, among which Fe and Mn particles were more sensitive to temperature changes. pH affected the sedimentation process by controlling metal ion speciation and particle surface charge: low pH significantly accelerated pipe scale dissolution, while weakly alkaline conditions prolonged particle suspension time. Low-concentration HA (0.5 mg/L) promoted particle dissolution, whereas high-concentration HA (1.0–2.0 mg/L) extended particle retention time through surface coating. Mn²⁺ concentration exhibited an obvious concentration-dependent effect: the range of 20–50 μg/L enhanced particle suspension stability, while 80–100 μg/L accelerated particle aggregation and sedimentation. The pipe scales mainly consisted of Fe₃O₄, Fe₂O₃, Mn₃O₄, and Al₂O₃, with metal release regulated by the “element complexation–particle aggregation–crystal growth” pathway. Particle sedimentation followed first-order kinetics. Controlling pH at 7.0, temperature < 30 °C, and reducing HA/Mn²⁺ concentrations effectively weakened metal particle migration. This study reveals the coupled effect mechanism of water quality parameters, providing theoretical and technical support for optimizing water quality control and solving the “yellow water” problem.