Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a socio-economically devastating mosquito-borne Neglected Tropical Disease caused by parasitic filarial nematodes. The interaction between the parasite and host, both mosquito and human, during infection, development and persistence is dynamic and delicately balanced. Manipulation of this interface to the detriment of the parasite is a promising potential avenue to develop disease therapies but is prevented by our very limited understanding of the host-parasite relationship. Exosomes are bioactive small vesicles (30–120 nm) secreted by a wide range of cell types and involved in a wide range of physiological processes. Here, we report the identification and partial characterization of exosome-like vesicles (ELVs) released from the infective L3 stage of the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi. Exosome-like vesicles were isolated from parasites in culture media and electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis were used to confirm that vesicles produced by juvenile B. malayi are exosome-like based on size and morphology. We show that loss of parasite viability correlates with a time-dependent decay in vesicle size specificity and rate of release. The protein cargo of these vesicles is shown to include common exosomal protein markers and putative effector proteins. These Brugia-derived vesicles contain small RNA species that include microRNAs with host homology, suggesting a potential role in host manipulation. Confocal microscopy shows J774A.1, a murine macrophage cell line, internalize purified ELVs, and we demonstrate that these ELVs effectively stimulate a classically activated macrophage phenotype in J774A.1. To our knowledge, this is the first report of exosome-like vesicle release by a human parasitic nematode and our data suggest a novel mechanism by which human parasitic nematodes may actively direct the host responses to infection. Further interrogation of the makeup and function of these bioactive vesicles could seed new therapeutic strategies and unearth stage-specific diagnostic biomarkers. Lymphatic filariasis is caused by parasitic nematodes that invade and occupy the host lymphatic system. The extent of lymphatic filariasis is staggering, with over 120 million people infected in 73 endemic countries and an estimated 40 million people suffering from a range of disfiguring and debilitating clinical manifestations of this disease. The mechanisms by which these medically important parasites navigate the host immune response to establish infection are not yet fully understood. In this study, we identify exosome-like vesicles (ELVs) that are abundantly released from infective stage L3 Brugia malayi, an etiological agent of human lymphatic filariasis. We show that these vesicles have a narrow size distribution and morphology consistent with classical exosomes, and that they contain common exosomal protein markers, putative effector proteins, as well as small regulatory RNAs. We show that ELVs are enriched with microRNAs that are perfectly conserved between parasite and host, suggesting a potentially novel mechanism by which filarial worms can actively manipulate host gene expression. We demonstrate that parasite ELVs are internalized by macrophages and elicit a classically activated phenotype in these host cells. The discovery of exosome-like vesicle release by human nematode parasites newly enlightens the roadmap to understanding the pathology of LF and related helminthiases. These vesicles also present promising new targets for intervention and diagnostics.

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi, pose significant threats to global food safety, public health, and agricultural sustainability. This review summarizes the classification, biosynthesis, chemistry, and mechanisms of action of these compounds, and highlights their global prevalence and the serious health consequences of both acute and chronic exposure. Despite decades of research, substantial gaps remain in effective surveillance, prevention, and risk management. Traditional control and detection strategies, although valuable, are often limited by their sensitivity, high costs, and inadequate field applicability. Addressing these gaps, this review emphasizes the potential of emerging technologies, particularly the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) with advanced sensing platforms, to revolutionize mycotoxin detection. These innovations offer enhanced precision, real-time monitoring, and predictive modelling capabilities, paving the way for proactive food safety systems. By critically evaluating current knowledge and exploring future-oriented solutions, this review highlights the urgent need for interdisciplinary approaches that integrate molecular insights, biotechnological advancements, and digital technologies. Finally, we emphasize that adopting these novel strategies is essential to overcoming the silent yet profound global impact of mycotoxins.

With the increasing world population, identifying additional food sources is crucial. Mushrooms have long been considered a nutraceutical and are consumed globally, including in Sri Lanka. Due to its abundant biodiversity, there is a significant potential for diverse wild edible mushrooms in Sri Lanka. However, the identification of these mushrooms based on morphological characteristics can often be misleading. Molecular characterization ensures more accurate and reliable identification of mushrooms, yet it has not been conducted extensively in Sri Lanka. This study collected several wild edible mushroom samples from Colombo and Rathnapura Districts of Sri Lanka. The edibility of these wild edible mushrooms was confirmed based on traditional knowledge and later verified by published literature. Phylogenetic analyses based on maximum likelihood (ML) analyses of ITS rDNA sequence data and morphological characteristics were used to determine the identity of the collected mushrooms. In this study, six edible mushrooms, Calvatia candida, Pleurotus giganteus, Schizophyllum radiatum, Termitomyces heimii, T. microcarpus, and Volvariella volvacea were identified based on morphology and phylogeny. Calvatia candida and S. radiatum are reported as new records for Sri Lanka, while this is the first study conducted on molecular characterization of V. volvacea in Sri Lanka. Finally, this study aims to increase the research interest, cultivation, commercialization, and conservation of these identified edible mushrooms in Sri Lanka.

Brugian filariasis (BF) has reemerged in Sri Lanka recently. Studies suggest the emergence of a variant brugian parasite. Knowledge on transmission dynamics is important in restraining the spread of infection. This study investigated the potential vector mosquitoes of this variant brugian parasite around six indexed human BF cases in five BF endemic districts in Sri Lanka. A total of 1711 mosquitoes from 20 species were analyzed. Potential infective mosquitoes were detected by the presence of L3 larval stage of brugian parasites within the head and thorax regions upon dissections and confirmed by amplification of the Brugia species-specific HhaI region. Twelve (12) mosquito species that could potentially serve as vectors for BF transmission in selected endemic areas in the country were identified due to the presence of L3 larvae in the head and thorax regions. This is the first report of Ma. indiana, Ar. subalbatus, Ae. albopictus, Cq. crassipes, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. gelidus, Cx. lopoceraomyia and Cx. vishnui with the potential of serving as vectors for BF transmission in Sri Lanka and Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. gelidus, Cx. lopoceraomyia and Cx. vishnui in the world through a field study. Of these, Ma. indiana, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ar. subalbatus together with Ma. uniformis, Ma. annulifera had the highest prevalence and infection rate at certain study sites. The recovery of parasite-positive Ma. indiana, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ar. subalbatus mosquitoes from window traps demonstrate the probable anthropophilic nature of these species, and their high prevalence in the respective areas deems further investigation on their vector potentiality essential.