This study investigates the knowledge and perception of smallholder cocoa farmers on the potential impacts of climate change on cocoa production in Ghana. It addresses opinions on the inclusion of climate change mitigation strategies (such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation—REDD+) into cocoa production, and potential obstacles and roles of stakeholders in ensuring community acceptance of such strategies in a unique multiple land use area—the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve. Data from the Ghana Meteorological Agency and through survey of 205 cocoa farmers were assessed with Mann-Kendall, Kruskal Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests. Farmers’ perceptions of changes in climate were notably diverse and did not always match historic weather data, but accurately described increases in temperature and drought which are linked to cocoa productivity. Farmers appreciate the importance of tree maintenance for ecosystem services but were skeptical of financially rewarding climate change strategies which favor tree protection. Cultural practices associated with cocoa production encourage carbon release and may pose a threat to the objectives of REDD+. Farmers’ experience on the land, interactions with other farmers, government extension agents and cocoa buyers all influence cocoa agroforestry practices in the area, and communication through existing entities (particularly extension agents) presents a pathway to community acceptance of climate change mitigation strategies. The study recommends reforms in REDD+ strategies to adopt flexible and participatory frameworks to facilitate adoption and acceptability due to pronounced heterogeneity in community perceptions and knowledge of climate change and related issues.

Windbreaks are an agroforestry practice that have been used extensively in the United States for centuries. Researchers have investigated why producers use windbreaks through regional surveys; however, no national analysis has been conducted on windbreak extent or adoption, limiting understanding of key information needed to guide technical assistance and research. To address this knowledge gap, the National Agroforestry Producer Survey was conducted. The survey was completed by 5682 producers with agroforestry (52% response rate). This study provides results from the 2734 producers who reported using windbreaks, one of the five agroforestry practices covered in the survey. Windbreak use spanned all farm size classes and regions. Windbreak acreage per farm averaged 10.2 acres (4.1 hectares) equivalent to roughly 3.8% of land area per farm with the practice. Producers reported using farmstead (60%), livestock (48%), boundary (47%), and field windbreaks (43%), along with hedgerows (40%) and living snow fences (13%). Key benefits for each windbreak type differed and corresponded to the primary function for which that windbreak type was designed. Across windbreak types, the most frequently cited challenge was wildlife damage to trees. Over 85% of producers also reported harvesting crops and products from their windbreaks, with 33% selling crops and products from windbreak vegetation, and 79% using crops and products for personal or on-farm use. Most operations established windbreaks at least 15 years prior to the survey, and 87% of producers reported a desire to maintain or expand the acres they have in windbreaks. Graphical Abstract

Forest Action Plans (FAPs) are strategic documents guiding forest management across the United States (U.S.), yet agroforestry terminology is used inconsistently within these plans. This study analyzed 50 state FAPs to assess how agroforestry practices are communicated. Using a predetermined list of 29 terms, including the five main agroforestry practices in the U.S. (alley cropping, forest farming, riparian forest buffers, silvopasture, and windbreaks), a descriptive content analysis was conducted, examining the frequency of agroforestry terms and their associated terms across all states. Results revealed wide variation in FAP document page length and regional differences in terminology usage. FAPs ranged from about 15–681 pages and the Midwestern (Great Plains) states demonstrated the highest frequency of agroforestry term mentions. Among the five main agroforestry practices, riparian forest buffers were mentioned most frequently (437 times across 44 states), while alley cropping and forest farming appeared in only two states. Notably, some states with established agroforestry traditions and practices showed minimal explicit agroforestry term usage in their FAPs. These findings highlight the need for clearer guidance within FAPs to improve the consistency and visibility of agroforestry terminology in the U.S. This analysis establishes a benchmark for understanding how agroforestry is communicated in FAPs and offers guidance for future research and FAP writing cycles beyond the current 2025–2026 updates.

Over the past several decades, research has documented increased adoption of silvopasture in the United States. However, no national survey has been conducted on silvopasture use, limiting understanding of key information needed to inform technical assistance and research. The National Agroforestry Producer Survey was conducted to address this gap. The survey was completed by 5,682 producers with agroforestry (52% response rate). This study provides results from the 1,747 producers who reported using silvopasture, one of the five agroforestry practices covered in the survey. The average acreage in silvopasture per farm operation was 80.7 acres (32.7 hectares), although acreages varied by region. Conversion of forests to silvopasture was the most common establishment pathway (59%), while 25% of producers planted trees into a field or pasture. Most respondents (74%) grazed cattle in their silvopastures, though many livestock types were reported. Producers cited high-value timber tree species or those providing edible crops as most important for use in their silvopastures. A majority (60%) of silvopastures were established over 15 years ago. Key benefits of silvopasture were improved animal welfare and wildlife habitat, while top challenges were added labor and management complexity and expense of maintenance. Roughly 88% of respondents use crops and products from their silvopastures for personal use, while 64% reported selling crops and products. Animal stockyards (59%) were the primary market outlet where producers sold products from their silvopastures. When asked about future intentions, 87% of producers reported maintaining or expanding the acres they have in silvopasture. Graphical Abstract The alternative text for this image may have been generated using AI.

Riparian forest buffers are used in the United States for multiple conservation, cultural, and socio-economic benefits. To date, no comprehensive national survey has been conducted on producers with riparian forest buffers, limiting understanding of how they establish, manage, and value these systems. The National Agroforestry Producer Survey was conducted to address this knowledge gap. The survey was completed by 5,682 producers with agroforestry (52% response rate). This study provides results from the 2,433 producers who reported using riparian forest buffers, one of the five agroforestry practices covered in the survey. The average acreage in riparian forest buffers per farm operation was 20.9 acres (8.5 hectares), representing 7.7% of the land area per farm. Most producers (93%) reported that some or all their buffers were established by letting trees and vegetation grow naturally, while 48% reported that they planted some or all their buffer vegetation. Most producers (84%) used personal funds to establish their buffers, with 38% using Federal government program funding. Removing trees and debris from waterways (55%) was the most frequent management activity, followed by pruning tree branches (52%). The most cited benefits experienced were wildlife habitat (96%), erosion control (93%), and bank stabilization (91%), while key challenges were added labor and management complexity (46%), trees falling into waterways (42%), and expense of maintenance (36%). Seventy-two percent of producers reported using crops and products from their buffers for on-farm use, while 26% reported selling products. Most producers (91%) plan to maintain or expand their acreage in riparian forest buffers. Graphical abstract