The skin is the largest organ of the human body and acts as a major protective barrier against external agents. However, the highly organized stratum corneum limits the effective delivery of many therapeutic compounds, especially hydrophilic and high-molecular-weight drugs. Conventional topical formulations often exhibit poor permeability, low bioavailability, and limited targeting efficiency. This review discusses recent advances in nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, including bio-based, biodegradable, and biocompatible polymeric nanocarriers for dermal and transdermal applications, with particular emphasis on vesicular, polymeric, and hybrid nanosystems. Nanocarriers such as liposomes, ethosomes, transfersomes, polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, nanogels, and lipid–polymer hybrid systems have demonstrated improved drug solubility, stability, controlled release, and skin permeation for localized (dermal) delivery compared with conventional formulations. In addition, biodegradable polymeric materials enhance dermal deposition and prolong drug retention, leading to improved therapeutic efficacy. These nanosystems can facilitate enhanced transdermal drug transport under optimized conditions; however, the extent of systemic delivery varies widely depending on drug physicochemical properties, formulation characteristics, and application conditions. Drug transport may occur through intercellular, transcellular, and follicular pathways, resulting in enhanced bioavailability and site-specific delivery. Claims regarding transdermal (systemic) absorption are restricted to cases supported by in vivo or clinical evidence. Furthermore, combining nanocarriers with microneedles and stimuli-responsive platforms has expanded the potential for controlled and on-demand transdermal delivery. Recent preclinical and clinical studies have reported that nanocarrier-based methotrexate gels reduced PASI-like scores by over 70% in psoriatic models, while oleic acid vesicle formulations achieved more than 95% cure rates in rodent models of tinea corporis. Despite these advances, challenges related to large-scale production, stability, regulatory approval, and clinical translation remain significant. Future developments integrating smart nanocarriers, bio-based polymeric biomaterials, wearable technologies, and AI-assisted design may improve personalized dermatological therapies. These innovations in nanocarrier drug delivery are accelerating the translation of advanced therapies to the clinic, promising safer, more effective and personalized dermatological treatments.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin condition characterized by recurrent itching, predominantly affecting children but also impacting adults. Geraniol, a monoterpene alcohol found in various aromatic plant-based essential oils, possesses a pleasant rose-like scent. This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of geraniol in a mouse model of atopic dermatitis by elucidating its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Mice were subjected to 2% 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) to induce AD, and treated with both oral and topical administrations of prednisolone and geraniol from day 7 to day 19. Macroscopic assessments of ear and dorsal skin, as well as ear thickness, were conducted on days 0, 7, and 19. Total leukocyte count (TLC) and differential leukocyte count (DLC) were measured in blood samples using an automatic hematology analyzer. Ear tissues were analyzed for mRNA expression levels of IL-4 and IL-13 via reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and molecular docking studies were performed to evaluate the binding affinity of geraniol to these cytokines. Histopathological examination using hematoxylin and eosin staining was conducted on ear and dorsal skin tissues to assess eosinophil and mast cell infiltration, as well as epidermal thickness. The results demonstrated that both oral and topical geraniol significantly alleviated AD-like symptoms. Geraniol treatment led to a reduction in DLC and TLC levels in the blood, as well as downregulation of IL-4 and IL-13 expression in ear tissue. In silico studies revealed that geraniol exhibited moderate binding affinities of -4.5 kcal/mol with IL-4 and -4.9 kcal/mol with IL-13. Histopathological analysis indicated a reduction in epidermal thickness and infiltration of mast cells and eosinophils in geraniol-treated mice. In conclusion, geraniol effectively alleviated atopic dermatitis in mice by reducing clinical scores, inflammatory cell infiltration, epidermal thickening, and regional downregulation of IL-4 and IL-13 mRNA expression. The in silico docking studies support the hypothesis of a potential Th2-modulatory effect of geraniol.

1. Imiquimod (IMQ) is a synthetic imidazoquinolinone compound with a molecular weight of 240.304 g/mol, comprising four principal functional groups: primary amine, imidazole, quinoline ring, and al...

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic immune-mediated disease in which persistent inflammation and oxidative stress contribute to progressive joint damage. This study evaluated the prophylactic effects of sabinene in complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis and explored potential molecular associations using integrated in vivo and computational approaches. Rats were allocated to vehicle control, arthritic control, piroxicam, or sabinene groups (15, 30, or 60 mg/kg; n = 6/group); sabinene was administered orally beginning 30 minutes before CFA injection and continued for 28 days. Paw swelling, hematological and biochemical parameters, inflammatory and oxidative-stress markers, and gene expression were assessed, followed by network pharmacology, enrichment analysis, and molecular docking. Sabinene dose-dependently attenuated CFA-induced paw swelling and body-weight loss and improved hematological, hepatic, renal, and inflammatory parameters. Treatment also enhanced antioxidant defenses and reduced lipid peroxidation, prostaglandin E₂, 5-lipoxygenase, and anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibody levels. Sabinene reduced messenger RNA expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3), caspase-1, gasdermin D, and other pro-inflammatory genes while increasing interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 expression. Network pharmacology identified 133 overlapping sabinene–RA targets, and molecular docking predicted interactions with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). These findings support a prophylactic protective effect of sabinene against CFA-induced arthritis associated with reduced inflammation, improved antioxidant status, and modulation of inflammasome-related gene expression. Further protein-level, functional, and post-induction studies are required to confirm the proposed mechanisms and therapeutic relevance.

Liposomal drug delivery systems have evolved into clinically relevant platforms for delivering small molecules, biologics, and vaccines. Nevertheless, a persistent translational gap remains between promising laboratory-scale formulations and reproducible pharmaceutical products. This review provides a practical framework linking liposome formulation, physicochemical characterization, manufacturing, and stability to pharmaceutical translation. Particular emphasis is placed on relationships between critical process parameters and critical quality attributes, including vesicle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology, lamellarity, encapsulation efficiency, drug loading, and in vitro release behavior. Preparation and cargo-loading strategies are discussed across conventional research-scale methods and approaches with potential for scalable manufacturing. Microfluidic production of conventional liposomes is distinguished from the manufacture of structurally distinct RNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles. Purification strategies and analytical determination of encapsulation efficiency are examined, with attention to the distinction between separation techniques and quantitative analytical methods. Lamellarity is highlighted as a structural determinant of encapsulation capacity, membrane organization, and release behavior, with complementary assessment by cryo-TEM, ³¹P-NMR, and small-angle X-ray scattering. Quality-control challenges associated with aggregation, fusion, cargo leakage, phospholipid hydrolysis, oxidation, and sterilization are also considered. Dry-state stabilization through lyophilization and spray drying is discussed for its potential to improve long-term stability and reduce cold-chain dependence. Ligand-targeted liposomes introduce additional requirements for surface characterization and biological evaluation, while approved products and investigational formulations illustrate achievements and limitations in clinical translation. Overall, this review emphasizes the importance of establishing relationships between formulation composition, processing, structural organization, stability, and functional performance to support more reproducible development and informed pharmaceutical translation.