Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are important functional biomolecules in human breast milk. Understanding the factors influencing differences in HMO composition and changes in their concentration over lactation can help to design feeding strategies that are well-adapted to infant’s needs. This review summarises the total and individual concentration of HMOs from data published from 1999 to 2019. Studies show that the HMO concentrations are highest in colostrum (average 9–22 g/L), followed by slightly lower concentrations in transitional milk (average 8–19 g/L), with a gradual decline in mature milk as lactation progresses, from 6–15 g/L in breast milk collected within one month of birth, to 4–6 g/L after 6 months. Significant differences in HMO composition have been described between countries. Different HMOs were shown to be predominant over the course of lactation, e.g., 3-fucosyllactose increased over lactation, whereas 2′-fucosyllactose decreased. Recent clinical studies on infant formula supplemented with 2′-fucosyllactose in combination with other oligosaccharides showed its limited beneficial effect on infant health.

Increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) has become a global major public health problem. Chronic low-grade inflammation associated with diet was found to play an import role in the development of MetS, although further studies are needed. The main purpose of this study was to explore the association between the dietary inflammatory index (DII), C-reactive protein (CRP) as a sign of inflammation status, and MetS. A total of 1712 participants from eight cities in China were included. Sociodemographic and health-related information was collected by a self-administrated questionnaire. Anthropometric information and fasting blood samples were collected for identification of MetS. DII scores were computed based on one time 24-h dietary recall. No significant association between MetS and DII was observed except for the blood pressure component of MetS (OR _{T3 versus T1} = 1.40; 95% CI: 1.03 to 1.89). A significant increased prevalence for MetS was observed for higher CRP (OR = 1.66; 95% CI: 1.26 to 2.18), as well as four out of five of MetS components. In stratified analyses by sex, the associations between DII/CRP and MetS among women, but not men, are comparable to the whole sample. In addition, Both the 2nd and 3rd tertile of the DII had a higher CRP level (β-Coefficients _{T2 versus T1} = 0.086, 95% CI: 0.004 to 0.167; β-Coefficients _{T3 versus T1} = 0.145, 95% CI: 0.045 to 0.245) among subjects with MetS. Participants with higher DII scores reported a higher degree of “Shanghuo” (p = 0.007), which is a traditional concept characterized by “redness, swelling, fever and pain” in Chinese Medicine. This study suggested a close association between CRP and MetS, while the association between the DII and MetS was limited. DII was only specifically associated with CRP at a higher level among participants with MetS.

Micronutrient inadequacy remains a nutritional problem in Chinese children. However, the associations between dietary diversity and inadequate micronutrient intake have not been extensively studied. A total of 2012 children aged 3–17 years from the China Health and Nutrition Survey were included for analysis. Dietary diversity score (DDS) and food variety scores (FVS) were assessed based on three 24-h recall periods. The nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) was used to determine the micronutrient adequacy of the diet. The mean adequacy ratio (MAR, %) was defined as the sum of each NAR divided by the number of involved micronutrients. Overall micronutrient inadequacy (OMI) was defined as having a MAR below 0.75. Micronutrient inadequacy was defined as the proportion of individuals whose nutrient intake was less than the estimated average requirement. After adjustment confounders, DDS and FVSs were positively associated with MAR and NAR of most nutrients except sodium (p < 0.05). A higher DDS was negatively associated with the prevalence of inadequate intake of vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin C, iron, zinc, selenium, niacin, phosphorus, magnesium and OMI. Similar results were found for FVSs. In conclusion, this study indicates that poor dietary diversity and food variety in Chinese children are directly associated with inadequate micronutrient intake.

To better understand the variability of the type and level of serum proteins in human milk, the milk serum proteome of Chinese mothers during lactation was investigated using proteomic techniques and compared to the milk serum proteome of Dutch mothers. This showed that total milk serum protein concentrations in Chinese human milk decreased over a 20-week lactation period, although with variation between mothers in the rate of decrease. Variation was also found in the composition of serum proteins in both colostrum and mature milk, although immune-active proteins, enzymes, and transport proteins were the most abundant for all mothers. These three protein groups account for many of the 15 most abundant proteins, with these 15 proteins covering more than 95% of the total protein concentrations, in both the Chinese and Dutch milk serum proteome. The Dutch and Chinese milk serum proteome were also compared based on 166 common milk serum proteins, which showed that 22% of the 166 serum proteins differed in level. These differences were observed mainly in colostrum and concern several highly abundant proteins. This study also showed that protease inhibitors, which are highly correlated to immune-active proteins, are present in variable amounts in human milk and could be relevant during digestion.

Despite the widely recommended usage of partially hydrolyzed formula (PHF) or extensively hydrolyzed formula (EHF) of milk protein for preventing allergic diseases (ADs), clinical studies have been inconclusive regarding their efficacy compared with that of cow's milk formula (CMF) or breast milk (BM). We aimed to systematically evaluate the effects of PHF or EHF compared with those of CMF or BM on risk of ADs (cow's milk allergy, allergic rhinitis, eczema, asthma, wheeze, food allergy, and sensitization) in children. We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science for clinical trials published from inception to 21 October, 2022. We used the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach to grade the strength of evidence. Overall, 24 trials (10,950 infants) were included, 17 of which specifically included high-risk infants. GRADE was low for the evidence that, compared with CMF, infants early fed with EHF had lower risk of cow's milk allergy at age 0-2 y [relative risk (RR): 0.62; 95% CI: 0.39, 0.99]. Moderate evidence supported that PHF and EHF reduced risk of eczema in children aged younger or older than 2 y, respectively (RR: 0.71; 95% CI: 0.52, 0.96; and RR: 0.79; 95% CI: 0.67, 0.94, respectively). We also identified moderate systematic evidence indicating that PHF reduced risk of wheeze at age 0-2 y compared with CMF (RR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.29, 0.85), but PHF and EHF increased the risk compared with BM (RR: 1.61; 95% CI: 1.11, 2.31; and RR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.26, 2.14). Neither PHF nor EHF had significant effects on other ADs in children of any age. In conclusion, compared with CMF, PHF, or EHF had different preventive effect on cow's milk allergy, eczema, and wheeze. Compared with BM, both PHF and EHF may increase risk of wheeze but not other ADs. Given that most trials included only high-risk infants, more research on non-high-risk infants is warranted before any generalization is attempted. This protocol was registered at PROSPERO as CRD42022320787.

Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP) is one of the most common uncomfortable symptoms of women in early pregnancy. A total of 303 Chinese pregnant women from 10 urban cities in their first trimester were recruited in this study to collect their sociodemographic characteristics and their NVP occurrence. Their dietary nutrient and food intakes were also collected by a 24 h dietary recall and a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ). Using the univariate analysis and multiple linear regression analysis to estimate the correlation between NVP and dietary intake, we found that 255 (84.1%) pregnant women experienced NVP during their first trimester. The intake of energy, protein, fat, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin E, phosphorus, potassium, iron and zinc was lower in women with NVP than in those with no NVP. Additionally, women with NVP were more likely to have insufficient intake of protein, riboflavin, calcium, phosphorus and selenium. In terms of specific food groups, the average daily intake of mushrooms, algae, nuts and seeds, meat, eggs and dairy products in the NVP group was lower. Women in the severe NVP group even had insufficient gestational weight gain. We should pay more attention to women who experience nausea and vomiting during pregnancy and provide them with targeted nutritional support.