Milk fat globules (MFGs) are secreted from the mammalian gland and are composed of a triacylglycerol core surrounded by a triple membrane structure, the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). The MFGM contains complex lipids and proteins reported to have nutritional, immunological, neurological and digestive functions. Human and ruminant milk are shown to share a similar MFG structure but with different size, profile and abundance of protein and polar lipids. This review summarizes the reported data on human, bovine, caprine and ovine MFG composition and concentration of bioactive components in different MFG-size fractions. A comprehensive understanding of compositional variations between milk from different species and MFG size fractions may help promote various milk sources as targeted supplements to improve human development and health. MFG size and MFGM composition are species-specific and affected by lactation, diet and breed (or maternal origin). Purification and enrichment methods for some bioactive proteins and lipids present in the MFGM have yet to be established or are not scaled sufficiently to be used to supplement human diets. To overcome this problem, MFG size selection through fractionation or herd selection may provide a convenient way to pre-enrich the MFG fraction with specific protein and lipid components to fulfill human dietary and health requirements.

The gastrointestinal microbiota plays an important role in maintaining host health by preventing the colonization of pathogens, fermenting dietary co

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are important functional biomolecules in human breast milk. Understanding the factors influencing differences in HMO composition and changes in their concentration over lactation can help to design feeding strategies that are well-adapted to infant’s needs. This review summarises the total and individual concentration of HMOs from data published from 1999 to 2019. Studies show that the HMO concentrations are highest in colostrum (average 9–22 g/L), followed by slightly lower concentrations in transitional milk (average 8–19 g/L), with a gradual decline in mature milk as lactation progresses, from 6–15 g/L in breast milk collected within one month of birth, to 4–6 g/L after 6 months. Significant differences in HMO composition have been described between countries. Different HMOs were shown to be predominant over the course of lactation, e.g., 3-fucosyllactose increased over lactation, whereas 2′-fucosyllactose decreased. Recent clinical studies on infant formula supplemented with 2′-fucosyllactose in combination with other oligosaccharides showed its limited beneficial effect on infant health.

There has been a growing interest in understanding how the relative levels of human milk fat globule (MFG) components change over the course of lactation, how they differ between populations, and implications of these changes for the health of the infant. In this article, we describe studies published over the last 30 years which have investigated components of the MFG in term milk, focusing on changes over the course of lactation and highlighting infant and maternal factors that may influence these changes. We then consider how the potential health benefits of some of the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) components and derived ingredients relate to compositional and functional aspects and how these change throughout lactation. The results show that the concentrations of phospholipids, gangliosides, cholesterol, fatty acids and proteins vary throughout lactation, and such changes are likely to reflect the changing requirements of the growing infant. There is a lack of consistent trends for changes in phospholipids and gangliosides across lactation which may reflect different methodological approaches. Other factors such as maternal diet and geographical location have been shown to influence human MFGM composition. The majority of research on the health benefits of MFGM have been conducted using MFGM ingredients derived from bovine milk, and using animal models which have clearly demonstrated the role of the MFGM in supporting cognitive and immune health of infants at different stages of growth and development.

As the global demand for protein‐rich foods continues to rise, developing innovative solutions to enhance sustainability and nutritional quality in meat production has become increasingly important. Meat is a tasty source of high‐quality protein and micronutrients, whose integration with alternative proteins offers new avenues to address technical and consumer‐driven challenges. Meat‐based hybrids, also called dual‐protein foods, combine meat with alternative proteins like plant proteins, edible insects, microalgae, and nutritional yeast, offering a promising solution by improving resource efficiency while retaining familiar taste and nutritional benefits of meat. However, challenges remain regarding protein compatibility, functionality, and consumer acceptance. This review critically examines recent advances in hybridizing meat with alternative proteins, highlighting the pivotal roles of pH, temperature, and salt concentration in modulating protein–protein interactions and functionalities essential for cohesive hybrid systems. Emerging protein combinations, such as plant‐yeast or microalgae‐yeast blends, offer promising but underexplored opportunities in hybrid systems to enhance nutritional value and functional performance. Additionally, this review synthesizes recent consumer studies, highlighting that taste, texture, visual appeal, perceived nutritional and environmental benefits are primary drivers of acceptance and willingness to pay for hybrid products. Processing technologies, including high‐moisture extrusion, high‐pressure treatments, and ultrasound, are discussed for their potential to improve hybrid product quality through structural modification. Finally, this review introduces the HYBRID meat framework—a holistic systems‐based roadmap for innovating dual‐protein meat products by integrating raw materials, hybridization mechanisms, processing, consumer insights, and enabling tools like artificial intelligence and machine learning to guide future innovations in meat‐based dual‐protein foods.