The efficacy of traditional antimicrobial treatments has been largely compromised due to the high occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, therefore underlining the limitations of existing drug delivery mechanisms. Pathogens resist pharmacological treatment via different mechanisms, including efflux pump overexpression, biofilm formation, and enzymatic destruction. The application of nanorobotics or controllable nanoscale devices has gained considerable attention for overcoming shortcomings while connecting biomedical engineering, materials science, and microbiology. Despite advancements in nanomedicine, there is still no suitable nanorobotic system applicable against MDR pathogens. Previous studies highlighted device categories and materials but did not explain the detailed nanorobotic mobility, sensing, and programmability to counteract biological resistance. This review combines cross-disciplinary discoveries to design a mechanistic and translational model for nanorobotics effective in controlling infectious diseases while focusing on the advancements in nanorobotic technologies over the past six years (2020–2025), with emphasis on translational readiness, biosafety issues, scalability, regulation, and their mechanistic ability to overwhelm MDR complications. Databases from different publishers, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, were used to select studies focusing on the potential of emerging nanorobotic therapeutic technologies, such as magnetic microrobots, catalytic nanoswimmers, and DNA origami nanodevices, and their application to bacterial biofilms and antibiotic drug delivery. Evidence from the literature shows that magnetically driven microrobots, catalytic nanoswimmers, and DNA origami structures can actively destroy biofilms, enhance antibiotic penetration, and perform site-specific antimicrobial administration. Nevertheless, most of these innovations remain in the preclinical or prototype stage, hindered by biosafety issues, immunological reactivity, poor routing precision, energy source optimization, and a lack of regulatory and ethical frameworks, which are major challenges for clinical translation.

Elaeocarpus sylvestris (Lour.) Poir., an evergreen tree native to East and Southeast Asia, has gained increasing scientific attention owing to its broad pharmacological properties. Traditionally used in East Asian medicine to treat inflammation, fever, and infectious diseases, modern research has revealed diverse bioactivities, including potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, and immunomodulatory effects. This therapeutic potential is primarily attributed to its rich phytochemical composition, particularly polyphenols such as geraniin, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose and quercetin. This review particularly focuses on the chemistry of E. sylvestris, summarizing structurally elucidated compounds, including hydrolysable tannins, flavonoids, and triterpenoids, along with recent insights into the structure–activity relationships that underpin these antiviral, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Recent studies have demonstrated substantial antiviral efficacy of E. sylvestris extracts and isolated compounds against major human pathogens, including herpesviruses, influenza A virus, and SARS-CoV-2, supported by in silico, in vitro, in vivo, and early-phase clinical evaluations. Its cosmeceutical applications, including antioxidant, skin-whitening, and blue-light protective effects, further highlight its multifunctional potential. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review summarizing the phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, therapeutic potential, and cosmeceutical applications of E. sylvestris. Despite these promising findings, challenges remain in elucidating precise molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, and clinical validation. This review identifies current research gaps and future directions necessary to advance E. sylvestris as a scientifically validated natural therapeutic resource.

The genus Lilium (Family Liliaceae), comprising economically important ornamental and medicinal perennial herbaceous plants, has gained increasing scientific interest due to its rich phytochemical diversity and broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. Several Lilium species have been traditionally utilized in various medicinal systems for the treatment of respiratory, inflammatory, gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. Among them, Lilium polyphyllum D. Don ex Royle is recognized as one of the beneficial medicinal species because of its ethnopharmacological importance and diverse bioactive constituents. Phytochemical investigations of Lilium species have identified numerous secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, phenolic compounds, steroidal saponins, polysaccharides, alkaloids and terpenoids, which contribute to their pharmacological potential. Recent pharmacological developments in the genus Lilium highlight the therapeutic potential of its steroidal saponins, alkaloids and polysaccharides, particularly regarding their action as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor. While the isolated phytochemicals have not yet transitioned to markets, Lilium extracts are actively commercialized globally within regulated traditional medicine formulations. This review provides a comprehensive and updated overview of the botanical characteristics, phytochemical composition, pharmacological activities and therapeutic potential of the genus Lilium, with particular emphasis on L. polyphyllum. Furthermore, current knowledge gaps, including limited mechanistic studies, pharmacokinetic evaluations and clinical investigations, are discussed. The review also highlights the urgent need for conservation strategies, sustainable cultivation practices and biotechnological approaches such as plant tissue culture to protect natural populations of L. polyphyllum while ensuring a reliable supply of plant material for future pharmaceutical and nutraceutical development.

Oral exposure to lipophilic plant bioactives depends on lipid digestion and enterocyte handling. Long-chain fatty acids and monoacylglycerols can be re-esterified and assembled with apolipoprotein B48 into chylomicrons, creating a route through intestinal lymph that differs from portal delivery. Food-grade lipid nanocarriers may alter this pathway by changing lipid digestion, micellar solubilization, cellular uptake, and chylomicron secretion, yet evidence for lymphatic transport is often inferred from bioaccessibility or plasma exposure rather than measured directly. This review evaluates how triglyceride chain length, unsaturation, lipid physical state, emulsifier interfaces, food matrices, and processing shape the digestive transformation of nanoemulsions and lipid particles into mixed colloids and substrates for enterocyte lipid processing. It compares nanoemulsions, nanostructured lipid carriers, liposomes, and related systems, with attention to the distinction between intact-particle uptake and cargo incorporation into endogenous lipoproteins. Static and dynamic digestion, epithelial models, lymph-duct cannulation, chylomicron-associated analyte measurements, and human pharmacokinetics are considered as distinct evidence tiers. The synthesis identifies which design claims are supported by direct lymph measurements and which remain mechanistic hypotheses. A framework aligns lipid composition and cargo chemistry with the intended portal or lymphatic exposure pathway. By treating endogenous chylomicron assembly as a testable design target, this review distinguishes a route-specific mechanism from gains in solubilization, epithelial uptake, or plasma exposure alone.